1、18-1Chapter 6: Perception and Individual Decision Making6-2Learning ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to:Define perception and explain the factors that influence it. Explain attribution theory, and list the three determinants of attribution.Identify the shortcuts individuals

2、use in making judgments about others. Explain the link between perception and decision making.Contrast the rational model of decision making with bounded rationality and intuition.Describe the common decision biases or errors.Explain how individual differences and organizational constraints affect d

3、ecision making.Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.Define creativity and describe the three-stage model of creativity.6-3Define Perception and Explain The Factors That Influence ItPerception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give

4、meaning to their environment.It is important to the study of OB because peoples behaviors are based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. LO 16-4Define Perception and Explain The Factors That Influence ItLO 16-5Explain Attribution Theory and List the Three Determinants of At

5、tributionAttribution theory suggests that when we observe an individuals behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Determination depends on three factors: DistinctivenessConsensusConsistencyLO 26-6Explain Attribution Theory and List the Three Determinants of A

6、ttributionClarification of the differences between internal and external causationInternally caused those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused resulting from outside causes.LO 26-7Explain Attribution Theory and List the Three Determinants of Attribu

7、tionLO 26-8Explain Attribution Theory and List the Three Determinants of AttributionFundamental attribution error We have a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors.Self-serving bias Individuals attribute their own suc

8、cesses to internal factors.LO 26-9Selective perceptionAny characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. Since we cant observe everything going on around us, we engage in selective perception. Halo effectThe halo effect occurs

9、when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. LO 36-10Identify the Shortcuts Individuals Use in Making Judgments About Others Identify the Shortcuts Individuals Use in Making Judgments About Others Contrast effects We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction t

10、o one person is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered. For example, an interview situation in which one sees a pool of job applicants can distort perception. Distortions in any given candidates evaluation can occur as a result of his or her place in the interview schedule. LO 36-1

11、1StereotypingJudging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs. This is a means of simplifying a complex world, and it permits us to maintain consistency. We have to monitor ourselves to make sure were not unfairly applying a stereotype in our evaluations and dec

12、isions. LO 36-12Identify the Shortcuts Individuals Use in Making Judgments About Others Applications of Shortcuts in OrganizationsEmployment InterviewEvidence indicates that interviewers make perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate. Interviewers generally draw early impressions that e very qu

13、ickly entrenched. Studies indicate that most interviewers decisions change very little after the first four or five minutes of the interview. LO 36-13Identify the Shortcuts Individuals Use in Making Judgments About Others Applications of Shortcuts in OrganizationsPerformance ExpectationsEvidence dem

14、onstrates that people will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those perceptions are faulty. Self-fulfilling prophecy, or the Pygmalion effect, characterizes the fact that peoples expectations determine their behavior. Expectations e reality. LO 36-14Identify the Shortcuts In

15、dividuals Use in Making Judgments About Others Applications of Shortcuts in OrganizationsPerformance EvaluationAn employees performance appraisal is very much dependent upon the perceptual process. Many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective measures are problematic because of selective

16、perception, contrast effects, halo effects, and so on. LO 36-15Identify the Shortcuts Individuals Use in Making Judgments About Others Explain the Link Between Perception and Decision MakingIndividuals make decisions choosing from two or more alternatives.Top managers determine goals, products to of

17、fer, how to finance operations, or locate a new plant. Middle- and lower-level managers determine production schedules, select employees, and decide about pay raises. Some non-managerial employees are now also empowered to make decisions that have been previously made by managers. LO 46-16Decision m

18、aking occurs as a reaction to a problem. There is a discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state, requiring consideration of alternative courses of action. One persons problem is anothers satisfactory state of affairs. Every decision requires interpretation and evaluation

19、 of information. Data are typically received from multiple sources. Which data are relevant to the decision and which are not? Alternatives will be developed, and the strengths and weaknesses of each need to be evaluated. LO 46-17Explain the Link Between Perception and Decision Making Contrast the R

20、ational Model of Decision Making with Bounded Rationality and IntuitionLO 56-18Assumptions of the Rational ModelThe decision makerHas complete information. Is able to identify all the relevant options in an unbiased manner.Chooses the option with the highest utility. Most decisions in the real world

21、 dont follow the rational model. LO 56-19 Contrast the Rational Model of Decision Making with Bounded Rationality and IntuitionBounded RationalityMost people respond to a complex problem by reducing it to a level at which it can be readily understood. People satisfice they seek solutions that are sa

22、tisfactory and sufficient. Individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality. They construct simplified models that extract the essential features. LO 56-20 Contrast the Rational Model of Decision Making with Bounded Rationality and IntuitionHow does bounded rationality work? Once a pro

23、blem is identified, the search for criteria and options begins. A limited list of the more conspicuous choices is identified.These are easy to find, tend to be highly visible, and represent familiar criteria and previously tried-and-true solutions. The decision maker then reviews the list, looking f

24、or a solution that is “good enough.”Sometimes a fast-and-frugal process of solving problems is the best option. LO 56-21 Contrast the Rational Model of Decision Making with Bounded Rationality and IntuitionIntuitionIntuitive decision making occurs outside conscious thought; it relies on holistic ass

25、ociations, or links between disparate pieces of information, is fast, and is affectively charged, meaning it usually engages the emotions.The key is neither to abandon nor rely solely on intuition, but to supplement it with evidence and good judgment.LO 56-22 Contrast the Rational Model of Decision

26、Making with Bounded Rationality and IntuitionDescribe the Common Decision Biases or ErrorsLO 66-23Overconfidence BiasIndividuals whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability. Anchoring BiasFixating on initial information as

27、a starting point and failing to adequately adjust for subsequent information. LO 66-24Describe the Common Decision Biases or ErrorsConfirmation BiasType of selective perception. Seek out information that reaffirms past choices, and discount information that contradicts past judgments. Availability B

28、iasTendency for people to base judgments on information that is readily available. LO 66-25Describe the Common Decision Biases or ErrorsEscalation of Commitment Staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that its wrong. Escalation is most likely to occur when individuals view themselv

29、es as responsible for the e. Randomness ErrorOur tendency to believe we can predict the e of random events.Decision making es impaired when we try to create meaning out of random events.LO 66-26Describe the Common Decision Biases or ErrorsRisk AversionThe tendency to prefer a sure thing instead of a

30、 risky e.Ambitious peoplewith power that can be taken away appear to be especiallyrisk averse.People will more likely engage in risk-seeking behaviorfor negative es, and risk-averse behavior for positive es, when under stress.Hindsight BiasThe tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately pred

31、icted the e of an event, after that e is actually known.LO 66-27Describe the Common Decision Biases or ErrorsExplain How Individual Differences and Organizational Constraints Affect Decision MakingIndividual DifferencesPersonalityConscientiousness AchievementstrivingDutifulnessHigh self-esteemGender

32、RuminationMental AbilityCultural DifferencesLO 76-28Explain How Individual Differences and Organizational Constraints Affect Decision MakingOrganizational ConstraintsPerformance EvaluationsReward SystemsFormal RegulationsSystem-Imposed Time ConstraintsHistorical PrecedentsLO 76-29Contrast the Three

33、Ethical Decision CriteriaUtilitarianism decisions are made solely on the basis of their es or consequences. Focus on rights calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges as set forth in documents such as the Bill of Rights.Protects whistle-blowers.Impose

34、 and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure justice or an equitable distribution of benefits and costs.LO 86-30Contrast the Three Ethical Decision CriteriaBehavioral ethics an area of study that analyzes how people actually behave when confronted with ethical dilemmas. Individuals do not alw

35、ays follow ethical standards promulgated by their organizations, and we sometimes violate our own standards. There are ways to increase ethical decision making in organizations.Consider cultural differences.LO 86-31Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful ideas. These are ideas that are different from what has been done before, but that are also appropriate to the problem. LO 96-32 Define Creativity and Describe the Three-Stage Model of Creativity Define Creativity and Describe the Three-Stage Model of CreativityLO 96-33Implications for ManagersTo influence productivity, asse