LegalSystemsVeryDifferentTheIdeaAllsocietiesfaceaboutthesameproblemsTheysolvetheminaninterestingvarietyofdifferentwaysAndtheyareallgrownupsSotrytomakesenseofhoweachlegalsystemworkedSomeofthesystemsImperialChina:2000yearsPericleanAthens:TheLegalSystemofaMadEconomistSagaPeriodIceland:Killsomeone,hisrelativessueyouIslamicLaw:SeparationoflawandstateJewishlaw:WhenGodisthelegislator,whatifHegetsitwrong?18thCenturyEngland:OurlegalsystemwithoutpoliceorpublicprosecutorsRomani:Therestofthehumanraceasenvironment,notpeopleAmish:Anarchists.Veryrulecenteredanarchists.PirateshipsasdemocraciesIndefenseofprisongangsImperialChina:IAsviewedfromabove,apurecriminallegalsystemAsviewedfrombelow,tortlawmasqueradingascriminallawInadditiontoimportantstuff,thereareminormattersLoans,land,marriage,andinheritance.IchargeyouwithnotpayingbacktheloanThemagistrateschedulesacourtdate,commentsonthecaseIthenbargainwithyou,youpaybacktheloanWehumblyaskthemagistratetocancelthecourtdateThemagistrate,beingabusyman,agreesIfwedon’treachagreement,thetrialisheld,themagistratetellsyoutopayIfyoudo,hegenerouslycancelsthepunishmentforyouroffenseImperialChina:IILawandtheextendedfamilyAllrelativesareseniororjuniortoeachother,andwithinsomedegreeofrelationshipAnyoffensebyseniororjunior,thepenaltyisscaleddownByjuniortosenior,thepenaltyisscaledupAccusingaseniorrelativewithintwodegreesofacrimeisacriminaloffenseEvenifheisguiltyWhatisgoingon?TheyarerulingseveralhundredmillionpeoplewithatinybureaucracyPartofthetrickistosubcontractthejobtootherauthoritystructuresOfwhichtheextendedfamilyisthemostimportantSotherulesreinforcethatauthoritystructureTheabilitytoreportcrimesbyseniorswouldgivejuniorspoweroverthemSoisblockedImperialChinaIII:TheExaminationSystemOfficialsareselectedbyaferociouslycompetitiveexaminationsystemTheexamwastestingthingsmostlyirrelevanttothejobKnowledgeoftheConfucianclassicsandhistoricalliteratureCalligraphyandabilitytowritepoetryandessaysinaparticularstyleWhyhavethesmartestpeoplespendadecadeortwostudyingthisstuff?AtestofIQandwillingnesstoworkhard?IndoctrinationIsouremphasisonacollegeeducationamodernequivalent?PericleanAthensAtheniandemocracyAllofficials,exceptgenerals,werechosenbylotAgovernmentofamateursTheAthenianpopulationPerhapshalfwereslavesSomemoreweremetics—residentaliens,oftenformanygenerationsTherestwerecitizensThecourtsystemTrialbyverylargejuriesPrivatelyprosecutedWhatwastheincentivetoprosecute?Fortheequivalentofcriminallaw,asuccessfulprosecutorusuallygotacutofthefineFortheequivalentofatortprosecution,asinoursystemthewinnercollectedadamagepaymentPericleanAthens:SolvingProblemsHowdoyoupreventabusiveprosecutionforthefineordamagepayment?Criminal:Iflessthan20%ofthejuryvotedforconviction,prosecutorwasfinedCivil:Ifthedefendantwon,theprosecutorowedhimdamages–1/6ththeclaimThepenaltyfortheftwastwicethevalueofthegoodsstolenAnobviousopportunitytoplantgoodswhilesearchingYoucouldsearchsomeone’shouseforyourstolengoodsButhadtodoitnakedWehaveasimilarissuewhencopssearchfordrugs.…ProductionofpublicgoodsIfyouwereoneoftherichestAthenians,everyotheryearyouhadtoproduceoneTwowaysofgettingoutofitShowthatyouaredoingonethisyearordidlastyearShowthatthereissomeonenotdoingonethisyearorlastwhoisricherthanyouareWithoutIRSoraccountants,howdoIproveyouarericherthanIam?IoffertoexchangeeverythingIownforeverythingyouownSagaPeriodIcelandInthe10thcentury,HaraldHaarfagrunifiesNorwayunderhisruleLotsofpeoplewhodon’tlikeitemigratetoIceland,recentlydiscoveredSetupalegalsystembasedontheNorwegian,withonethingleftoutThekingTherewasalegislature,acourtsystem,butnoexecutivearmofgovernmentAlloffensesweretreatedastorts,privatelyprosecutedforadamagepaymentVerdictswereprivatelyenforcedThesagasarehistoriesandhistoricalnovelsWrittenmorethansevenhundredyearsagoFromapopulationofaboutfiftythousandatthefaredgeoftheworldTenormoreofwhicharecurrentlyinprintinEnglishtranslationIslamicLawSeparationoflawandstateThelawisdeducedbyscholarsfromtheKoranandHadithLikeoursystem,withcourtprecedentsreplacedbylawreviewarticlesHadithareaccountsofthingssaidordonebyMohammedandhiscompanionsEachcomeswithanisnad,achainoftransmittersThestrengthofahadithdependsonthereputationofthetransmittersAndthenumberofseparatechainssupportingthesamehadith.InSunniIslamtherearefourschoolsoflaw,mutuallyorthodoxMuftiandKadiAmuftiisajurisconsult,someonewhogivesadvisoryopinionsonthelaw(fatwas)AKadiisajudge,appointedbytheruler,whotriesanactualcaseHaddLawLegalruleswithfixedpenaltybasedmostlyontheKoranFiveoffenses.Allrequiretwoeyewitnesses,exceptthat…ForZina,intercoursewithsomeoneneitheryourspousenorconcubineProofrequiresfoureyewitnessestothesameactofintercourseThepenaltyforthosewhohavepreviouslyhadlicitintercourseisstoningtodeathFalseaccusationofZinaTheftPenaltyishavingyourrighthandcutoffButtherearealotofconditionsthathavetobemetforthehaddoffenseoftheftDrinkingwineHighwayrobbery(includesbreakingintoahousewithpeopleputinfear)OtherPartsoftheLawTazirPenaltysetbythejudgeatorbelowthehaddpenaltyWeakerrequirementsofevidenceJinayat:KillingorinjuringsomeoneTreatedasanoffenseagainstthevictimorhisheirsForfirstdegreemurderHeirscaninsistonretaliationOracceptdiya,bloodmoneypaymentForlesserversionsofkilling,onlydiyaInaddition,killermustfreeabelievingslaveorfastfortwomonthsOthernon-fiqhcourtsThereareavarietyofothercourtssetupbytherulerTheoreticallyinthespiritof,butnotboundby,koraniclawJewishParallelsNotsurprisingly,alotofsimilarityAccordingtoTorah,thedisobedientsonistobestonedButrabbinicscholarsreadintothetextsomanyconditionsThatitisarguedthatitneverhashappenedorwillhappenBothsystemsfacethesameproblemsWhenGodisthelegislator,howdoyouresolvedisagreementsInitially,theGreatSanhedrincouldresolvedisputesbymajorityvoteWhenthatnolongerexisted,whateverauthoritieswereaccepted—reputation,likethemuftiForawhile,theheadsoftheBabylonianacademiesLaterscholarssuchasMaimonidesCommunalauthoritiesclaimedsomepowertolegislate,likethenon-fiqhcourtsWhenGodgetsitwrong,howdoyoufixtheerror?Interpretaroundthingsyoudon’tlikeOrfindexcusesforadditionallegislationoutsidethereligiouslawConsidertheparallelswithU.S.constitutionallawEighteenthCenturyEnglandOurlegalsystem,withoutpoliceorpublicprosecutorsAllcrimes,exceptactuallyagainstthestate(counterfeiting),privatelyprosecutedAnyEnglishmancanprosecuteanycrimeUsuallythevictimAndessentiallyallseriouscrimeswerecapitalButonlyaminorityofthoseconvictedofsuchcrimeswerehangedPuzzlesWhybearthecostofprosecution?Unliketort,youdon’tcollectdamagesOneincentiveinsomecaseswasarewardAnotherwasprivatedeterrenceMembersofasocietyfortheprosecutionoffelonschippedinannualfeestopayforprosecutionAndthemembershiplistwaspublishedinthenewspaperforthefelonstoreadAnotherwasgettingpaidtodropthecaseWhymakealloffensescapitalWhypardonamajorityofthoseconvicted—usuallyconditionalpardonsForanswersreadthechapterinmy(webbed)bookdraftTheCrime/TortPuzzleWehavetwolegalsystemstodoessentiallythesamejobYoudosomethingbad,thelegalsystemintervenes,somethingbadhappenstoyouAreasonnottodobadthingsOne,tort,treatsoffensesasoffensesagainstthevictimThevictimisinchargeofdiscoveringtheoffenderandprosecutinghimThevictimcandropchargesTheusualpunishmentisapaymenttothevictimOne,criminal,treatsoffensesasoffensesagainstthestateStateactorsdiscoverandprosecutetheoffenderIfthereisafineitgoestothestateMorecommonlythereisapunishmentsuchasimprisonmentThisraisesthreequestionsIsthereagoodreasontohaveboth?Wouldwebebetteroffwithonlyone?Isthereagoodreasontosortoffensesaswedo?Isthereagoodreasontobundlelegalrulesaswedo?OnecollectionofrulesfortortAdifferentcollectionforcrimeShouldWeAbolishtheCriminalLaw?ImagineapuretortsystemProblemsThevictimmaynothavetheresourcestoprosecute.SomeoffensescausediffuseinjuryForboth,theIcelandicsolution:MaketortclaimsmarketableThepoorvictimsellshisclaimtoafirmwithresourcestoenforceitReplaceclassactionswithsomeonebuyingupmanysmallclaimsandthenlitigatingBesideswhich,mostcrimesmostlyinjurethevictimOffendersmaybejudgementproofOnecouldhavelegalrulesmakingthatlesslikelyThestatecouldpaythefineandimprisontheoffender—stillmostlytortPotentialvictimscouldcommitinadvancetobuydeterrence,asin18thc.EnglandAstickeronyourdoor”TheresidentisacustomerofSure-DeathIncorporatedprivateprosecutionagency”Butthatdoesn’tworkforvictimanonymousoffenses—pickpocketing,muggingThefineforacrimeisboththepunishmentforthecriminalandtherewardforthevictimWewanttheoptimalprobability/punishmentpairButsettingthepunishmentsetstheprobability,sinceitdeterminesthepayofftocatchinghimWecannotseparatelycontroltwofunctionswithonevariableThefancysolution,usingprofitmaximizationforanadditionalconstraint,isanarticleonmywebpageThesimpleansweristhattheidenticalproblemexistsforordinarytortlawSortingOffensesDoweallocateoffensescorrectlytothetwosystem?TortlawforoffenseswhereweknowwhodiditLandes/PosnerargumentThateliminatestheprobability/punishmentproblemforcatchingtheoffenderButthechanceofwinningatortsuitdependsonhowmuchyouarewillingtospendWhichdependsonhowlargethedamagesareWhichgetsusbacktotheprobability/punishmentproblem.JudgementproofargumentIfitishardtocatchtheoffender,weneedabigfinetoprovideadequatedeterrenceWhichtheoffendermaynotbeabletopayAndcatchinghimisexpensive,sowealsoneedabigfinetomakeitworthdoingOntheotherhand,tortsaremorelikelythancrimestobeanonymousvictimYoudon’tknowwhoyouarelikelytorunintoOrwhoyourpetlionwillmaulAndthetortsweseelitigatedaretheoneseasytodetectBecauseitisn’tworthlitigatingtherestWithnoprobabilitymultiplierfordamagesWhichmaybeawayofavoidinganincentiveforfraudulentprosecutionBundlingLegalRulesThesamepersoncontrolsprosecutionandcollectsfinesThatmakessense,sinceotherwisethecontrollertakesabribetodropthecaseButitcreatesanopportunityforfraudulentprosecutionInbothtortlawandcriminallaw—considercivilforfeitureIn18thcenturyEngland,rewardsforprivateprosecutioncreatedfraudMoreefficientpunishmentsgowithalowerstandardofproofMakessense,sinceerrorshavelowersocialcost,but…AnefficientpunishmentisanincentiveforfraudulentprosecutionWhichiseasierwithalowerstandardofproofBurglary,TrafficAccidents,andIncentivesTreatingsomethingasatortreducesthevictim’sincentivetoavoiditSincethelossisatleastpartly,perhapsentirely,compensated“Hitme—Ineedthemoney”Sowheretheactcreatesanetcost,makeitacrimeinsteadForinstancetrafficaccidentsWheresomethingisatransferIfthevictimisfullycompensated,noneedforanincentiveforhimtopreventitItwillonlyhappenwhenthegaintotheoffenderisgreaterthanthecostSoburglaryshouldbeatortThepointbeingthatweareoptimizingonmanymarginsAndpickingoneletsyouargueforaconclusion,ignoringtheothersWhichmeansthatwhatevertherule,youmaybeableto“prove”itisefficientIstheCommonLawEfficient?Theaprioricase—shouldweexpectittobe?ArgumentforjudgesdoingitdeliberatelyIncreasingthesizeofthepieistheonegoodthingjudgescando,sotheytrytodoitButthatassumestheyknowenougheconomicsTorealizetheycannotredistributeintheirpreferreddirectionAndenoughtoknowwhatrulesareefficientAndignoresthefactthat,unlikefirms,theydon’tgetfeedbackfromtheirmistakesAnditassumestheyarenotaimingatjusticeinsteadPerhapstheyare,andthereissomereasonwhywhatisefficientisseenasjust?InvisiblehandargumentIfthelawisinefficient,partieshaveanincentivetotrytoworkarounditOrtolitigateinthehopeofchangingitEventuallythelawchangesButchangingthelawfacesapublicgoodproblemIfbeneficiariesofaninefficientlegalruleareaconcentratedinterestgroupAndlosersdispersedinterestgroupThebeneficiariesmayraisemoretolitigateforitthantheloserstolitigateagainstConsider,forinstance,anagencylitigatingforrulesitlikesagainstdispersedlosersTheCasefromtheEvidencePropertyrulesvsliabilityrulesThelegalsystemmostlygetsthatright,but…MostlydoingittheotherwayisnotjustinefficientbutobviouslyunworkableDentsomeone’scar,gotojail?Stealsomeone’scar,payrentalforthetimeyouhadit?OthergeneralpatternsseemtofitthetheoryTherighttogrowcropsonlandisbundledwiththerighttowalkonitInolongerownmypropertyuptotheheavensTortlawasaPigouviantaxNegligenceasasolutiontothejointcausationproblemPosneroffersvariousdetailedrulesthathearguesfitTheCaseAgainstOrgansalesareillegal(isthatcommonlaworstatutorylaw?)Therearepotentialrentseekingproblems,butRequiringgoodchainoftitleshoulddealwiththemNofreedomofcontractforproductliabilityOrbreach—penaltyclausesarenotenforceableAlthoughapenaltyclauseisjustavoluntarilyagreedtopropertyruleAndpropertyrulesarepartofcommonlawThecommonlawtreatsthevalueoflifeaszerointortiousdeathcasesSinceyourclaimdieswithyouSoaninefficientlylowincentivenottotakeriskswithotherpeople’slivesTortclaimsarenotmarketable.IftheywereThatwouldsolvetheproblemofnotbeingabletoaffordalawyerAndofnotknowingwhatlawyerwoulddoagoodjobAndprovideasuperiorsubstituteforclassactionsTheCaseforIgnoranceEconomicargumentsarecomplicatedMycrime/tortchapterrantheargumentthroughsevenroundsThisiswhyyoucouldhaveapuretortsystemThisiswhyitwouldn’tworkThisishowthatproblemwouldbedealtwithThis…Onceyouknowthelegalrule,youcanusuallyfindsomeargumentthatitisefficientComingtothenuisanceAgoodrule,becauseitischeapertomoveahousingdevelopmentorpigfarmbeforeitisbuiltAbadrule,becausemypigfarmgivesmecontroloverlandthatwilllaterbewantedforhousingSoIhavearentseekingargumenttobuildthepigfarmnowwhereyouwillwanttobuildhousinglaterTheHimalayanphotographerandtheEggshellSkullTheeconomiclogicoftwoproblemsisthesameThelegalanswerisdifferentAndeachtimePosnerconcludesthatthelegalansweriscorrectButtheissuePosnerraisedhasbeenveryproductiveThequestion“whatlegalrulesisefficient”ProvidesawayofunifyingourunderstandingofthelawSeeingconnectionsacrossfieldsotherwisenotobviousAlternativeSolutionstotheProblemofLawFeudLaw:DecentralizedandprivatelyenforcedDictatorship:SomeonetellseveryonewhattodoandmakesthemdoitDecentralizeddecisionsunderstateenforcedlegalrulesOursystem,whichyouhavebeenstudyingAndmostofthisbookisaboutFeudLawLawbyprivateviolenceandthreatsofviolence:FeudsystemsIfyouwrongmeIthreatentoharmyouunlessyoucompensatemeAformofdecentralizedprivatelawenforcementTowork,itneedstosolvefourproblemsMythreatismorebelievableifyoureallydidwrongme:RightmakesmightInIceland,thecourtsystemAmongtheRomanichal,asmallcommunity,myfriendsonlysupportmeiftheythinkIamjustifiedIhaveanincentivetocarryoutmythreat,evenifdoingsoiscostlyInternalincentives,f