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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper11095

WomenandClimateAdaptationinRuralSub-SaharanAfrica

ConstraintsandResearchPriorities

ClaraDelavallade

MélanieGittard

JuliaVaillant

WORLDBANKGROUP

AfricaRegion

GenderInnovationLabApril2025

PolicyResearchWorkingPaper11095

Abstract

Sub-SaharanAfricaishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange,withruralwomendis-proportionatelyaffectedduetopre-existinggenderinequalitiesthatbothincreasetheirneedforadaptationandconstraintheirabilitytoadoptstrategies.Thispaperreviewsempiricalevidenceonkeybarrierstowomen’sclimateadaptation,identifiescriticalknowledgegaps,andoutlinesagender-informedpolicyandresearchagenda.Focusingonon-farmandoff-farmadaptationstrategies?includingclimate-smartagriculture,weatherinsurance,incomediversification,andmigration?thepaperhighlightskeyconstraintslimitingwomen’sadaptivecapacity:financiallimitations,restrictedassetcon-trolandownership,gendernormspositioningwomenasprimarycaregiversandshockabsorbers,lowerhumanand

socialcapital,andlimitedaccesstoclimateandtechnologyinformation.Substantialgapsremaininunderstandinghowwomen’sfinancialliteracy,institutionaltrust,riskandcli-mateperception,andsocialnetworksaffecttheiradaptation.Evidence-supportedinterventionsincludeinformationprovisiononclimate-smartagriculturaltechnologiesandsocialprotection,whileemergingbutlessestablishedinter-ventionsincludesocio-emotionalskillsprograms,childcare,andlandtitling.Underexploredyetpromisinginterven-tionsinvolveexpandingwomen’saccesstodigitalclimateservices,strengtheningsocialnetworks,andengagingmeninshiftingintra-householdroles.Significantknowledgegapspersistregardingthemainconstraintswomenfaceinadoptingmigrationasanadaptationstrategy.

ThispaperisaproductoftheOfficeoftheGenderInnovationLab,AfricaRegion.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat

/prwp.Theauthorsmaybe

contactedatjvaillant@andcdelavallade@.

ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam

WomenandClimateAdaptationinRuralSub-SaharanAfrica:ConstraintsandResearchPriorities

ClaraDelavallade*,M′elanieGittardt,andJuliaVaillant?

Keywords:Gender,climatechange,adaptation,agriculturalpractices,migration

JELcodes:Q54,J16,O13,D63,Q15

*AfricaGenderInnovationLab,WorldBank.cdelavallade@

tStanfordUniversity,CenteronFoodSecurityandtheEnvironment(FSE).mgittard@?AfricaGenderInnovationLab,WorldBank.jvaillant@.

WearegratefultoCiceroBragaandLaurelMorrisonforexcellentresearchassistance,KathleenBeegle,SteveCommins,FranziskaDeininger,MenaalEbrahim,JoaoMontalvao,RachaelPierotti,PieterSerneels,CarlyTrachtman,DiegoUbfalandcolleaguesattheAfricaGenderInnovationLabforinsightfulcommentsonearlierversionsofthepaper.ThisworkwasfundedbytheWorldBankUmbrellaFundforGenderEquality(UFGE).Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheWorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

2

Introduction

Sub-SaharanAfricahasexperiencedincreasingclimatevariability,withextremeweathereventsandshiftingagriculturalseasonsdisruptinglivelihoodsandforcingfarmerstoadapt

(Nicholson

,

2018;

Panthouetal.,

2018

).Whileadaptationiscritical,rigorousevidenceonboththeadoptionandeffectivenessofadaptationstrategiesremainslimited,particularlyinlow-incomecontexts(

Ferigaetal.,

2025

).Arobustevidencebaseontheeffectivenessofvariousadaptationpoliciesappearsnecessary,asmarketfailuresandresourceconstraintscanlimitindividuals’abilitytomakeoptimaladaptationinvestments(

Carletonetal.,

2024

).Climatechangeimpactsarenotevenlydistributed.Pre-existinggenderinequalitiesheightenwomen’svulnerabilitywhilerestrictingtheirabilitytoadoptadaptivestrategies,exacerbat-ingpovertyandwideningdisparities(seeBox

1

).Addressingtheseconstraintsisessentialforequitableadaptationandresilience-building.

Thispapersynthesizesempiricalevidenceongender-specificconstraintsinclimateadap-tation,identifyingpolicy-relevantinterventionsandresearchgaps.Itexaminesfourkeyadaptationstrategies:on-farmadaptation,includingclimate-smartagriculture(CSA)andweatherinsurance,andoff-farmadaptation,includingincomediversificationandmigration.Additionally,itassessestheroleofadaptivesocialprotectioninimprovingaccesstothesestrategiesforvulnerablewomen.Giventheimmediateandsevereeffectsofclimatechangeinlow-incomecountries,thispaperfocusesonadaptationstrategiesratherthanmitigation(seeBox

2

).Thereviewhighlightsthreekeyfindings.

First,womenfacegreaterbarriersthanmeninadoptingclimatechangeadaptationstrate-gies,bothon-farmandoff-farm.Whilemuchoftheliteratureiscorrelational,emergingexperimentalevidencesuggeststhatstructuralconstraints,ratherthanintrinsicpreferences,explainlowerfemaleadoptionratesofCSAandweatherinsurance.Womenalsoencountergreaterchallengesinincomediversificationandmigration,whichremainmale-dominated.

Second,thispaperidentifiesgender-specificconstraintstoclimateadaptationthatgobeyondthosefacedbymen.Women’son-farmadaptation,particularlyinvestmentinCSAtechnologies,ishinderedbylandtenureinsecurity,limitedaccesstoclimateinformation,andlowerhouseholdbargainingpower,makingriskierinvestmentsevenmorechallenging.Theirhigherriskaversion,drivenbyeconomicandstructuralfactors,furtherreducesCSAadoption.Maledominanceinagriculturalnetworksalsorestrictswomen’saccesstoknowl-edgeanddecision-makingopportunities.Limitedinformationcontributestowomen’slowuptakeofweatherinsurance,compoundedbytheirgreateridiosyncraticrisks—includinghealthshockslinkedtofertilityandchildcare—andtheirroleas’shockabsorbers’,whichleadthemtoprioritizeemergencysavings.Householdresponsibilitiesfurtherconstraintheirengagementinoff-farmactivities,reducingopportunitiesforincomediversificationandmi-grationinresponsetoclimateshocks.Thesechallengesareexacerbatedbylowexpectedreturns,limitedresources,andrestrictedbargainingpower.Theeffectivenessofadaptivesocialprotectioninsupportingwomen’sclimateresiliencedependsonhowwellprogramsaddressgenderedconstraints,includingmobilityrestrictions,bargainingpowerimbalances,anddomesticresponsibilities.

Third,anevidencemapcategorizesadaptationinterventionsbythestrengthofempir-icalsupport.Credibleinterventions—supportedbysubstantialevidenceofeffectiveness—includeCSAinformationprogramstargetingwomenorbothspousesandsocialprotec-

3

tioninitiativeslikecashtransfersandeconomicinclusionprograms.Emerginginterventions—suchassocio-emotionalskillstraining,childcareservices,andlandtitlingprograms—showpromisebutrequirefurthervalidation.Frontierinterventions—whererigorousevi-denceiscurrentlylacking—includedigitalclimateinformationservices,gender-responsiveweatherinsurance,andnorm-changinginitiativeschallenginggenderrolesandenhancingwomen’sdecision-makingpower.Furtherresearchisneededtoassessthemosteffectivegender-sensitiveprovisionsinadaptivesocialprotectionprograms,andtheonesthattrans-latemostintoadoptionofindividualadaptationstrategies.

Significantknowledgegapsremainforacomprehensiveunderstandingofgenderdynam-icsinclimatechangeadaptation.Household-levelagriculturaldataoftenobscureintra-householdinequalities,limitingunderstandingofwomen’sconstraintsinCSAadoptionontheplotstheymanage

.1

Thecausaleffectsofclimateinformationonwomen’sriskprefer-encesandadaptationdecisionsarestillunder-examined.Furtherresearchisalsoneededonhowtimeconstraints,householdstructureandintra-householddynamicsinfluencewomen’sparticipationinoff-farmemployment,andontheroleofgendernormsandlandtenurein-securityinshapingwomen’smigrationdecisions.Additionally,littleisknownabouttheadaptivecapacityofwomenleftbehindwhenmenmigrate.

Theremainderofthepaperisorganizedasfollows.WepresentourmethodologicalframeworkinSection

1.

Wereviewtheevidenceongendergapsintheadoptionoffouradaptivestrategies:CSA(Section

2

),weatherinsurance(Section

3

),incomediversification(Section

4

)andmigration(Section

5

).Section

6

highlightsthekeychallengesadaptivesocialprotectionmustovercometoensuregreateraccesstotheseadaptivestrategiesformorevulnerablewomen.WepresentinSection

7

anevidencemapreviewingexperimentalevidenceoninterventionsseekingtoaddressthekeyconstraintspreviouslyidentifiedforeachadaptationstrategy.WeoutlinepriorityresearchquestionsinSection

8

beforeconcluding.

1MethodologicalNote

Thistargetedreviewoftherecentliteraturesynthesizesqualitative,empirical,andexperi-mentalstudiesongenderdifferencesinclimateadaptation.Wedistinguishbetweendescrip-tiveanalyses,whichdocumentadaptationdisparities,andcausalanalyses,furtherdistin-guishingbetweenquasi-experimentalandexperimentalstudies.

Thereviewisdividedintothreemainsections.Thefirstsectiontacklesevidenceongenderdifferencesandconstraintsfacedbywomenandincludesbothqualitativeandcausalstudies,aswellasinterventionsthatshedlightongender-specificbarriers.Thesecondsectionreviewsinterventionsthataddresstheseconstraintsinanevidencemap,citingexperimentalevidenceshowingproofofeffectivenessandhighlightingpromisingbutuntestedapproachesforfutureresearch.Thethirdsectionpresentskeyresearchgapsidentifiedinthefirsttwosections.

Wedefineclimateadaptationatthemicrolevel,focusingonon-farmandoff-farmadap-tationamongruralandagriculturalpopulationsinSub-SaharanAfrica.Broadermacro

1TheLSMS-ISAsurveysareanotableexception.Theycollectplot-leveldatawhichprovidegender-disaggregatedindicatorsattheplot-managerlevel,criticalforidentifyingbarrierstowomen’sagriculturalproductivity.

4

Box1.Gendergapsinvulnerabilitytoclimatechange

Climatechangedisproportionatelyaffectswomen,exacerbatingpre-existinggenderin-equalitiesinhealth,safety,livelihoods,andagriculturalproductivity.InSub-SaharanAfrica,womencontributesignificantlytoagriculturallaboryetfacelowerproductivityduetolimitedaccesstoinputs,land,andmarketopportunities(

Kilicetal.,

2015;

Aguilar

etal.,

2015;

Alik-Lagrangeetal.,

2025

),whileexperiencinghigherfoodinsecurityfollow-ingclimateshocks(

Kakotaetal.,

2011;

Zakarietal.,

2014

)andincreasedmaternalandinfanthealthrisksfromrisingtemperatures(

Graceetal.,

2015

)

.a

Climateshocksalsoheightengender-basedviolencerisks(

Brown,

2008

).Droughtsandfloodsincreaseintimatepartnerviolence(

Coolsetal.,

2020;

AbionaandKoppensteiner,

2016

),sexualexploitation(

UNHCR,

2022

),andfeminicide(

Miguel,

2005

).Drought-inducedincomeshocksraisechildmarriagerates(

Cornoetal.,

2020;

HotteandMarazyan,

2020

),reinforcingfertilityandadversehealthoutcomesandunderminingwomen’sedu-cation,laborforceparticipationandagency.

Economically,climateshocksincreasewomen’sunpaiddomesticandcareworkandre-stricttheireducationandlabormarketparticipation(

Kakotaetal.,

2011;

Moshoeshoe

etal.,

2021

).Women’sresponsibilities,suchasfetchingwater,expandinresponsetoclimatestressorsandtheyaremorelikelythanmentoexitemploymentandstruggletore-entertheworkforcepost-shock(

Ermanetal.,

2021

).Furthermore,girlsaremorelikelythanboystobewithdrawnfromschooltocontributetodomesticduties,exacerbatinggenderdisparitiesineducation(

Bjo…rkman-Nyqvist,

2013;

Babugura,

2008

).

aGender-sensitiveadaptationstrengthenshouseholdresilience,asconstraintsfacedbywomeninruralcouplescanweakentheentirefamily’sabilitytocopewithclimateshocks.Sincehouseholddecisionsareoftenjointendeavors,addressingwomen’sadaptationbarriersnotonlyempowersthembutalsopromotesinclusivedecision-makingandefficientresourceallocationacrossthehousehold.

policies,suchasgreenjobsandsustainabilityinitiatives,areexcluded,asaredownstreamconsumersofagriculturalproducts.

Thereviewincludesbothstudiesexplicitlyexamininggenderdifferencesandthosere-vealinggenderedheterogeneity.WhiletheprimaryfocusisSub-SaharanAfrica,studiesfromotherlow-incomeregionsareincludedwhenSub-SaharanAfricanevidenceisinsufficient.Wealsodistinguishbetweengenderdifferenceswithinhouseholds(malevs.femalehouseholdmembers)andbetweenhouseholds(male-vs.female-headedhouseholds),specifyingthesedistinctionsthroughout.

2Climate-SmartAgriculture

TheadoptionofCSAiscriticalforreducingfoodinsecurityamongsmallholderfarmersfacingunpredictablerainfall.TheWorldBankdefinesCSAas“anintegratedapproachtomanaginglandscapes,cropland,livestock,forestandfisheriesthataddresstheinterlinkedchallengesoffoodsecurityandclimatechange”(

WorldBank,

2023

).

5

Box2.Whyfocusonclimateadaptation(ratherthanmitigation)?

Climatechangeandpovertyaredeeplyinterconnected,asclimateshocksthreatentopushmillionsintoextremepoverty,particularlyinSub-SaharanAfrica,whereagriculturere-mainshighlyclimate-sensitive(

RozenbergandHallegatte,

2015

).DespitecontributingminimallytoglobalCO2emissions(

IPCC,

2022

),theregionfacesdisproportionatevul-nerabilityduetoitsrelianceonrain-fedagriculture,limitedeconomicdiversification,andconstrainedadaptivecapacity.

Whileglobalmitigationeffortsarecriticalforlimitinglong-termclimatechange,adap-tationisthemoreimmediateandpressingpriorityforlow-incomecountriesthatalreadyexperiencesevereclimateshocks.Unlikemitigation,whichfocusesonreducingemissions,adaptationdirectlyenhancesresiliencebyenablinghouseholdsandcommunitiestoadjusttoclimatechange’sinevitableconsequences.Strengtheningadaptivecapacityisparticu-larlyurgentforwomenwhoaredisproportionatelyaffectedbyclimateshocks,notonlyasamatterofequitybutalsoasanecessaryconditionforbothpovertyreductionandsustainabledevelopmentinclimate-vulnerableregions.

a

aEstimatesindicatethatSub-SaharanAfricawillrequire$15billionannuallyforagricultureandfoodsystemadaptation,whilethecostofinactioncouldbemorethan10timeshigher,surpassing$200billionannually(

Ijjasz-Vasquezetal.,

2021

).

FarmersemployvariousCSAstrategiesincludingcropdiversification(

Mertzetal.,

2009

),drought-resistantcrops(

Emericketal.,

2016

),diversificationbetweencropsandlivestock

(Seo

,

2010

),treeplanting(

Tambo,

2013

),agro-forestry,landfragmentation(

Veljanoska,

2018

),adjustedcropchoices(

Belowetal.,

2010

)andplantingdates(

Adzawlaetal.,

2019

),watermanagement(

Fishman,

2013

),improvedseedvarieties,moderninputs(

Derconand

Christiaensen

,

2011;

TambetandStopnitzky,

2021

),irrigation,soilconservation(

DiFalco

andVeronesi

,

2013

),andconservationagriculture(

Beamanetal.,

2021

).

However,costlyon-farmadaptationstrategiescantrapsmallholderfarmersincyclesofpoverty(

DerconandChristiaensen,

2011

).InMalawi,climate-inducedpovertytrapsconfinepoorerhouseholdstolow-valuemaizecultivation,restrictingtheirabilitytoadoptCSApractices,suchasimprovedseedvarietiesandfertilizers(

Sesmeroetal.,

2018

).BarrierstoCSAadoptionincluderesourceconstraints;smallfarmsizes;limitedaccesstocredit,marketsandknowledge;aswellaslandtenureinsecurity(

Descheemaekeretal.,

2016;

Mershaand

Duguma

,

2019

).

Genderdisparitiesinadoptionrates

QualitativeandcorrelationalevidenceongenderdifferencesinCSAadoptionyieldsmixedfindings.Somestudiesreporthigheradoptionratesofwaterconservationandcropdiversifi-cationamongfemale-headedhouseholdsinSouthAfrica,ZambiaandZimbabwe(

Nhemachena

andHassan

,

2007

)andgreaterintercroppingamonghouseholdswithmorefemalemembers

(Beninetal.

,

2005

).Othersfindnosignificantgenderdifferences,asshowninalarge-scalesurveyacross11Africancountries(

Maddison,

2007

)andastudyofagro-pastoralistsin

6

Kenya(

Silvestrietal.,

2012

).

However,mostresearch—includingrecentexperimentalevidence—findsthatmenadoptCSAstrategiesathigherratesthanwomen.Male-headedhouseholdsaremorelikelytoinvestinnewagriculturaltechnologiesandirrigationinUganda(

Nabikoloetal.,

2012

)andGhana(

Adzawlaetal.,

2019

).InEthiopia,male-headedhouseholdsaremorelikelytoconservesoil,changecropvarieties,planttrees(

Deressaetal.,

2009

),anduseirrigation

(GebrehiwotandVeen,

2013

).InGhana,menarealsomorelikelytoplantearly-maturinganddrought-tolerantseedvarieties(

Adzawlaetal.,

2019

),whileinNigeria,womenadoptimprovedriceproductiontechnologiesatlowerratesthanmen(

ArimiandOlajide,

2016

).Acomprehensivereviewsimilarlyfindsthatwomenlagbehindmeninadoptinghigh-yieldingcropvarietiesandagriculturaltechnologies(

Doss,

2001

).ExperimentalevidencefromNigersuggeststhatwomenadoptCSAstrategiesatlowerratesduetostructuralbarrierssuchaslimitedlandownershipandrestrictedfinancialaccess(

AkerandJack,

2023

)

.2

Emergingevidencesuggeststhatwhenwomenhaveaccesstoreliableinformationandresources,theyfavorlong-term,conservativeadaptationstrategiesovershort-termcopingmechanisms.InEastAfrica,womenperceiveconservationagricultureasmorebeneficialthanmendo(

Murageetal.,

2015

).InUganda,womenaremoreinclinedtotransitionfromsubsistencetocashcrops,facilitatingincomesmoothingovertime(seeBox

3

formoredetailsongenderedcropspecialization).Duringclimaticshocks,womenreallocatelandtomarket-orientedcrops,whilemenprioritizeoff-farmemployment(

Agamileetal.,

2021

).Whilethesefindingsremainsuggestive,theyunderscoretheneedforfurthercausalanalysisofwomen’sperceptionsandpreferencesforCSApractices.Existingevidencesuggeststhatexternalconstraints,ratherthanintrinsicpreferences,primarilydrivewomen’sloweradoptionratesandrelianceonshort-termcopingstrategies.Thenextsectionexaminestheseconstraintsindetail.

Box3.Genderedcropspecialization

AcrossAfrica,agriculturallaborisgendered,withmenprimarilycultivatingcashandexportcropswhilewomengrowsubsistencecrops(

Croppenstedtetal.,

2013

).Women’sfocusonlower-risk,lower-returncropssupportshouseholdfoodsecurityduringclimateshocks(

Duflo,

2003;

LovoandVeronesi,

2019

)butlimitstheirmarketaccess,reinforc-ingpovertytrapsandconstraininginvestmentsinadaptationstrategiessuchasCSA,weatherinsurance,incomediversification,andmigration.InUganda,

Agamileetal.

(2021

)findthatdrought-inducedlaborshiftsalterhouseholdcropallocation.Asmenseekoff-farmwork,womenincreasefarmlaborandreallocatelandfromsubsistencetocashcrops.However,restrictivegendernormscontinuetolimitwomen’sengagementinincome-generatingagriculture,constraininglong-termadaptationdespitetheirpotentialpreferenceforcommercialcrops.

2Thereviewofgenderdisparitiesinadoptionratesdepartsfromtheunitaryhouseholdmodel,recognizingthatinmanySub-SaharanAfricancontexts,husbandsandwivesmanageseparateplotsandmakeindividualfarmingdecisions.

7

Women’sconstraintstoadoptionofCSA

Riskaversion

Extensiveevidenceindicatesthatwomenexhibitgreaterriskaversionthanmen(

Nelson,

2015

;

SarinandWieland,

2016

),whichcanhindertheiradoptionofclimateadaptationstrate-gies

.3

Riskpreferencesshapelandusedecisions(

Chavasetal.,

2010

),agriculturalchoices

(Adgeretal.,

2008;

Charnessetal.,

2013

),andadaptationstrategies(

TamandMcDaniels,

2013

).Morerisk-aversefarmerstendtousefewerinputs,investlessinnewtechnologies,andprioritizelower-risk,lower-returnstrategies(

Molua,

2011

).Empiricalevidencesupportsthispattern.Riskaversionreduceswomen’sadoptionofproductivity-enhancingagriculturalin-puts,asseeninlowerfertilizeruseamongfemalefarmersinEthiopiaandKenyaandlimitedtechnologyadoptioninCameroon(

Kebede,

2022;

SheremenkoandMagnan,

2015;

Molua,

2011

).

Informationonclimatechangeandweatherforecasts

Unequalaccesstoinformationisamajorbarriertowomen’sadoptionofCSA(

Quisumb-

ingandPandolfelli

,

2010

).Reliableinformationhelpscorrectmisperceptionsaboutclimatechange(Box

4

),updatefarmers’beliefs(

Burligetal.,

2024

),andreduceuncertaintysur-roundingCSAinvestments.

Giventhateconomicandstructuralfactorsinducewomentendtobemorerisk-aversethanmen,improvingaccesstoclimateinformationiscritical.ClimateInformationServices(CIS),whichprovidetimelyweatherupdates,havebeenshowntoenhanceCSAadaptationcapacity(

Autioetal.,

2021;

Maggioetal.,

2019;

McKuneetal.,

2018;

NgigiandMuange,

2022

;

Yegbemeyetal.,

2023

).AframedfieldexperimentinZambiashowsthatCISenabledbothmenandwomentoinvestinhigher-returntechnologies,demonstratingthepotentialofinformationtoreduceriskaversionandpromoteCSAadoption(

Krameretal.,

2023a

).

WomenfaceadditionalbarrierstoCIS,especiallyinrainfedagriculturalsystems(

Roudier

etal.

,

2014;

Talletal.,

2018;

Autioetal.,

2021

).InKenya,menhavegreateraccesstoearlywarningsystems,whilewomenrelyonweatherforecasts,whichhavelessimpactonCSAadoption(

NgigiandMuange,

2022

).Limitedsmartphoneownershipfurtherrestrictswomen’saccesstomobile-basedservices,leavingthemdependentonradiobroadcasts(

Partey

etal.

,

2020;

NgigiandMuange,

2022

).Culturalbeliefsmayalsounderminetrustinweatherforecasts,reducingCISuseinsomeregions(

Dioufetal.,

2019

).EvenwhenwomenaccessCIS,householdpowerdynamicsmayconstraintheirabilitytoactontheinformation.InZambia,providingforecastinformationtobothspousesimprovedjointdecision-making,highlightinghowintra-householddynamicsshapeCSAadoption(

Krameretal.,

2023a

).

Insum,women’slimitedaccesstoandbenefitfromclimateinformationstemsfromdigitalexclusion,climatemisperceptions,andhouseholddecision-makingconstraints,butlittleisknownofinterventionsthatenhancewomen’saccesstoCISandabilitytoactuponthis

3Women’sgreaterriskaversionisduetoacombinationofeconomicdependence,socialroles,limitedaccesstoresources,andstructuralinequalities.Theirprimarycaregivingresponsibilities,loweraccesstoinformationandnetworks,increasedvulnerabilitytoeconomicandenvironmentalshocksandculturalnormscontributetomorecautiousdecision-making.

8

information.Theinteractionbetweenwomen’sriskaversion,CISaccess,andCSAadoptionalsoremainsanopenquestion(seeSection

8

foradetailedresearchagenda).

Box4.Climatechangeperceptionandadaptation

Accurateclimatechangeperceptioniscrucialforadoptinglong-termadaptationstrate-gies,asperceptionisthefirststepintheadaptationprocessandmayaffectaccesstoclimateinformation,asseeninGhana(

Parteyetal.,

2020

)andinKenya(

Ngigiand

Muange,

2022

).Theliteraturesuggeststhateducationandexperienceshapeclimateper-ceptionandadaptation(

Maddison,

2007;

Tambo,

2013;

Silvestrietal.,

2012;

Komowski

etal.,

2015;

Atchikpaetal.,

2017;

Gittard,

2024b

),withexperiencedfarmersmorelikelytoperceiveclimateimpactsandthosewithhighereducationmoreinclinedtoadoptadap-tationstrategies(

IshayaandAbaje,

2008;

Maddison,

2007

).Fewstudiesexaminegenderdifferences.InSenegal,whilewomenhavelessaccesstoCISthanmen,akeyreasonexplainingbothwomen’sandmen’sreducedaccesstoCISmaybelimitedperceptionsofclimate-relatedrisksandusefulnes