經典word整理文檔，僅參考，雙擊此處可刪除頁眉頁腳。本資料屬于網絡整理，如有侵權，請聯系刪除，謝謝！2021年雅思考試模擬試題及答案：閱讀1.Britishscientistsarepreparingtolaunchtrialsofaradicalnewwaytofightcancer,whichkillstumoursbyinfectingthemwithviruseslikethecommoncold.2.Ifsuccessful,virustherapycouldeventuallyformathirdpillaralongsideradiotherapyandchemotherapyinthestandardarsenalagainstcancer,whileavoidingsomeofthedebilitatingside-effects.3.LeonardSeymour,aprofessorofgenetherapyatOxfordUniversity,whohasbeenworkingonthevirustherapywithcolleaguesinLondonandtheUS,willleadthetrialslaterthisyear.CancerResearchUKsaidyesterdaythatitwasexcitedbythepotentialofProfSeymour'spioneeringtechniques.4.Oneofthecountry'sleadinggeneticists,ProfSeymourhasbeenworkingwithvirusesthatkillcancercellsdirectly,whileavoidingharmtohealthytissue."Inprinciple,you'vegotsomethingwhichcouldbemanytimesmoreeffectivethanregularchemotherapy,"hesaid.5.Cancer-killingvirusesexploitthefactthatcancercellssuppressthebody'slocalimmunesystem."Ifacancerdoesn'tdothat,theimmunesystemwipesitout.Ifyoucangetavirusintoatumour,virusesfindthemaverygoodplacetobebecausethere'snoimmunesystemtostopthemreplicating.Youcanregarditasthecancer'sAchilles'heel."6.Onlyasmallamountofthevirusneedstogettothecancer."Theyreplicate,yougetamillioncopiesineachcellandthecellburstsandtheyinfectthetumourcellsadjacentandrepeattheprocess,"saidProfSeymour.7.Preliminaryresearchonmiceshowsthatthevirusesworkwellontumoursresistanttostandardcancerdrugs."It'saninterestingpossibilitythattheymayhaveanadvantageinkillingdrug-resistanttumours,whichcouldbequitedifferenttoanythingwe'vehadbefore."8.Researchershaveknownforsometimethatvirusescankilltumourcellsandsomeaspectsoftheworkhavealreadybeenpublishedinscientificjournals.Americanscientistshavepreviouslyinjectedvirusesdirectlyintotumoursbutthistechniquewillnotworkifthecancerisinaccessibleorhasspreadthroughoutthebody.9.ProfSeymour'sinnovativesolutionistomaskthevirusfromthebody'simmunesystem,effectivelyallowingthevirusestodowhatchemotherapydrugsdo-spreadthroughthebloodandreachtumourswherevertheyare.Thebighurdlehasalwaysbeentofindawaytodelivervirusestotumoursviathebloodstreamwithoutthebody'simmunesystemdestroyingthemontheway.10."Whatwe'vedoneismakechemicalmodificationstothevirustoputapolymercoataroundit-it'sastealthviruswhenyouinjectit,"hesaid.11.Afterthestealthvirusinfectsthetumour,itreplicates,butthecopiesdonothavethechemicalmodifications.Iftheyescapefromthetumour,thecopieswillbequicklyrecognisedandmoppedupbythebody'simmunesystem.12.Thetherapywouldbeespeciallyusefulforsecondarycancers,calledmetastases,whichsometimesspreadaroundthebodyafterthefirsttumourappears."There'sanawfulstatisticofpatientsinthewest...withmalignantcancers;75%ofthemgoontodiefrommetastases,"saidProfSeymour.13.Twovirusesarelikelytobeexaminedinthefirstclinicaltrials:adenovirus,whichnormallycausesacold-likeillness,andvaccinia,whichcausescowpoxandisalsousedinthevaccineagainstsmallpox.Forsafetyreasons,bothwillbedisabledtomakethemlesspathogenicinthetrial,butProfSeymoursaidheeventuallyhopestousenaturalviruses.14.Thefirsttrialswilluseuncoatedadenovirusandvacciniaandwillbedeliveredlocallytolivertumours,inordertoestablishwhetherthetreatmentissafeinhumansandwhatdoseofviruswillbeneeded.Severalmoreyearsoftrialswillbeneeded,eventuallyalsoonthepolymer-coatedviruses,beforethetherapycanbeconsideredforuseintheNHS.Thoughtheapproachwillbeexaminedatfirstforcancersthatdonotrespondtoconventionaltreatments,ProfSeymourhopesthatonedayitmightbeappliedtoallcancers.Questions1-6Dothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninthereadingpassage?Forquestions1-6writeTRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeinformationFALSEifthestatementcontradictstheinformationNOTGIVENifthereisnoinformationonthisinthepassage1.Virustherapy,ifsuccessful,hasanadvantageineliminatingside-effects.2.CancerResearchUKisquitehopefulaboutProfessorSeymour’sworkonthevirustherapy.3.Viruscankillcancercellsandstopthemfromgrowingagain.4.Cancer’sAchilles’heelreferstothefactthatvirusmaystaysafelyinatumorandreplicate.5.Toinfectthecancercells,agooddealofvirusesshouldbeinjectedintothetumor.6.Researchesonanimalsindicatethatviruscouldbeusedasanewwaytotreatdrug-resistanttumors.Question7-9Basedonthereadingpassage,choosetheappropriateletterfromA-Dforeachanswer.7.Informationaboutresearchesonviruseskillingtumorcellscanbefound(A)onTV(B)inmagazines(C)oninternet(D)innewspapers8.Totreattumorsspreadingoutinbody,researcherstryto(A)changetheimmunesystem(B)injectchemotherapydrugsintobloodstream.(C)increasetheamountofinjection(D)disguisethevirusesonthewaytotumors.9.Whenthechemicalmodifiedvirusintumorreplicates,thecopies(A)willsoonescapefromthetumorandspreadout.(B)willbewipedoutbytheimmunesystem.(C)willbeimmediatelyrecognizedbytheresearchers.(D)willeventuallystopthetumorfromspreadingout.Questions10-13Completethesentencesbelow.Chooseyouranswersfromthelistofwords.Youcanonlyuseeachwordonce.NBTherearemorewordsinthelistthanspacessoyouwillnotusethemall.Inthefirstclinicaltrials,scientistswilltryto……10……adenovirusandvaccinia,soboththeviruseswillbelesspathogenicthanthe……11…….Theseuncoatedviruseswillbeapplieddirectlytocertainareastoconfirmsafetyonhumanbeingsandtheright……12……needed.Theexperimentswillfirstlybe……13……tothetreatmentofcertaincancersQuestions10-13Completethesentencesbelow.Chooseyouranswersfromthelistofwords.Youcanonlyuseeachwordonce.NBTherearemorewordsinthelistthanspacessoyouwillnotusethemall.Inthefirstclinicaltrials,scientistswilltryto……10……adenovirusandvaccinia,soboththeviruseswillbelesspathogenicthanthe……11…….Theseuncoatedviruseswillbeapplieddirectlytocertainareastoconfirmsafetyonhumanbeingsandtheright……12……needed.Theexperimentswillfirstlybe……13……tothetreatmentofcertaincancersListofWordsdosagerespondingsmallpoxvirusdisablenaturalonesinjectdirectedtreatmentcold-likeillnesskillpatientsexaminedAnswersKeys:1.答案：FALSE2段：Ifsuccessful,virustherapycouldeventuallyformathirdpillaralongsideradiotherapyandchemotherapyinthestandardarsenalagainstcancer,whileavoidingsomeofthedebilitatingside-effects.Virustherapy只能避免一些副作用，而不是根除。)2.答案：TRUE3段，特別是最后一句：CancerResearchUKsaidyesterdaythatitwasexcitedbythepotentialofProfSeymour'spioneeringtechniques.)3.答案：NOTGIVEN(文中沒有提到virus可以抑制腫瘤細胞再生長)4.答案：TRUE(見第5段第3、4句：這里“cancer’sAchilles'“Ifyoucangetavirusintoatumour,virusesfindthemaverygoodplacetobebecausethere'snoimmunesystemtostopthemAchilles'heel的意思是“致命弱點”)5.答案：FALSE6段第第1句：Onlyasmallamountofthevirusneedstogettothecancer.)6.答案：TRUE(見第7段：Preliminaryresearchonmiceshowsthatthevirusesworkwellontumoursresistanttostandardcancerdrug.……,whichcouldbequitedifferenttoanythingwe'vehadbefore.")7.答案：B8段第1、2句：Researchershaveknownforsometimethatvirusescankilltumourcellsandsomeaspectsoftheworkhavealreadybeenpublishedinscientificjournals.Journal意思是“日報、期刊、雜志”)8.答案：D9段第1句：ProfSeymour'sinnovativesolutionistomaskthevirusfromthebody'simmunesystem,……“mask”的意思是“掩蓋、隱蔽、偽裝”，在這里和“disguise”同義。)9.答案：B11段第2句：Iftheyescapefromthetumour,thecopieswillbequicklyrecognisedandmoppedupbythebody'simmunesystem..“mopup”這里與“wipe同義，意思是“消滅、殲滅”。)10.答案：disable13段最后1句：Forsafetyreasons,bothwillbedisabledtomakethemlesspathogenicinthetrial,butProfSeymoursaidheeventuallyhopestousenaturalviruses.)11.答案：naturalones13段最后1句：Forsafetyreasons,bothwillbedisabledtomakethemlesspathogenicinthetrial,butProfSeymoursaidheeventuallyhopestousenaturalviruses.)12.答案：dosage14段第1句：Thefirsttrialswilluseuncoatedadenovirusandvacciniaandwillbedeliveredlocallytolivertumours,inordertoestablishwhetherthetreatmentissafeinhumansandwhatdoseofviruswillbeneeded.)13.答案：directed14段最后1句：Thoughtheapproachwillbeexaminedatfirstforcancersthatdonotrespondtoconventionaltreatments,…)2021年雅思考試模擬試題及答案ReadingPassage1ECOTOURISMINRURALMEXICOIt’snothardtoadvocateecotourism——looselydefinedasaformoftravelthatprotectsanareaofthenaturalworldwhileenablingthelocalpeopletopreservetheircultureandmeettheirdailyneeds.Thehardpartismakingitwork.Mexico，withmanynatural，stilllargelyunspoiledareasandalandsystembasedoncommunityalikelyecotourismparadise.Butitsrecordoftourismdevelopmenttellsadifferentstory.Now，thankstotheeffortsoftwoconsultantsinMexicoCity，thecountrymayhavefiguredoutawaytobenefitfromtheecotourismmarketthatisgrowingrapidlyworldwide.JuanCarlosIbarraandAntonioofBalamConsultants，havesucceededwheremanyotherpeoplehavefailed，helpinglocalcommunitiesdeveloptheabilitytooperateecotourismventures.IbarraandSuarezbegantheircurrentlineofworkintheearly1990s，helpingtheresidentsofthecommunityofSanNicolas，outsideMexicoCity，developandmarketrecreationalfacilitiesthatwouldattracttourists.IbarraandSuarezspentmorethan600hoursteachingpeopleinthecommunitybusiness，marketing，andpublicrelationsskills.TheresultofthisprojectwastheSanNicolasPark，whichnowoffersfacilitiesforhikingandmountainbikingon2,304hectaresoflandthatotherwisewouldhavebeenlosttoillegalloggingandurbansprawl.Thessuccessiswellregardedbyprofessionalsfromaroundtheworldandisthemost-visitedecotourismsiteinMexico.Theproductoftheirefforts“showswhatcanbedone.Itsmainvalueisthatitenablesthosewhowillbenefitorsuffermostfromecotourismtotakethedecisions.”saysRonMaderofthewebsiteAmericasEcotourism.“ThewonderoftheworkdonebyIbarraandSuarez，”Madersays，“isthattheymakeitlookverysimple.”AnadvantageforMexicointhefieldofecotourismdevelopmentislandreformsimplementedaftertheendoftheMexicanRevolutionin1917.Propertypreviouslyownedbythewealthyelitewasredistributedtopeasantcommunitiesintheformofcommunallyownedvillagelandsknownascomunidades.Today，morethan23,000communalgroupsOwnand1iveon75percentofland.Mostofthecountryssplendidsnowcappedvolcanoes，lushjunglesandwhitesandbeachesarealsocommunalproperty.Thismeansthatwhentouristscometovisitthenaturalattractions，thelocalpropertyownersshouldbenefit.ButsomeheavilypromotedasCancunandBahiasdeHuatulco，havebeenbuiltOnvillagelandsthatweretakenbythegovernmentandsoldtocorporations.Althoughsomelocalpeoplearehiredtoworkattheseresorts，manydonothavetheappropriateskillsortheknowledgeofhowthesecorporationsIbarra.Asaresult，mostofthewell-payingjobsarefilledbypeoplefromurbanareaswhohaveabetterunderstandingofbusinessIbarraandSuarezaretryingtostopthistrendbyworkingwiththecomunidadestodevelopcommunity-basedecotourismprojects.Thetwoconsultantshavebeenconductingworkshopsonthesubjectincommunitiesacrossthecountry.“InrecenttheecotourismboomreachedMexico，manycompaniesstartedpromotingtripstothewildernessareasofthesaidIbarra.“Inthebeginning，theownersofthelandsinwhichecotourismwasbeingdevelopedwerenotinvolvedatbutsurely，ruralpopulationshavebeguntoperceiveecotourismasaneconomicCommerciallyspeaking，however，theresidentsofruralcommunitiesusuallyhavenoexperienceinrunningandmarketingabusiness.Eveniftheyhavedevelopedawellrunproject，visitorscomeunlessthereisalsoeffectivemarketing.Afterisabusinessandtheyneedtobringincustomers.IbarraandSuarezsayteachingpeopleinlocalcommunitieshowtorunanecotourismoperationiseasy.Thehardpartishelpingruralinhabitantsovercomeaculturallyingrainednotionthattheyarestupidandincapableofrunningsuchabusinessthemselves.Foreveryhourdevotedtotheinstructionofbusinessskills，theconsultantsspendfourhourshelpinglocalresidentsbuildself-esteemandconfidence.Theyareconvincedthatasuccessdependsontheinvolvementofthelocallandowners.RonMaderviewsIbarraandSuarezaspioneersinbuildingsuccessfulecotourisminMexico.Theirwork.hesays，is“outstanding——notonlybecausetheyhaveassistedindevelopmentofhikingandbikingbecausetheyhavedemonstratedaprofoundrespectforthecommunitiesQuestionsCompletethesummarybelow.ChooseONEORTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes5onyouranswersheet.Itisvaluablebutdifficulttomake(1)................work.Despitenaturalandlegaladvantages，thecountrydoesnothaveagoodhistoryof(2)...............However，twoconsultants，IbarroandSuarezarenowtraining(3)................inMexicointhedevelopmentofenvironmentallysoundprojectsTheirfirstprojectresultedintheestablishmentofalarge(4)................nearSanforoutdoorrecreation.TheworkdonebyIbarroandSuarezhasbeenpraisedbecauseitallows(5)................tobemadebythepeoplemostaffected.QuestionsDothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassage17InboxesonyouranswersheetwriteTRUEifthestatementistrueaccordingtothepassageFALSEifthestatementisfalseaccordingtothepassageNOTGIVENiftheinformationisnotgiveninthepassage6.Mostofbeachesandjunglesarecommunallyowned.7.TheMexicangovernmenthasprofitedfromthedevelopmentoftouristresorts.8.Thenumberoflocalpeopleworkingintourismisdecreasing.9.IbarraandSuarezwanttoencouragepeoplewhoalreadyunderstandbusinessmethodstoworkonecotourismprojects.10.Recently，companieshavebeenofferingtripstoseewildanimalsinMexico.11.PeopleintheMexicancountrysideoftenlackconfidenceintheirownbusinessskills.12.Thefirstthingthattheconsultantsdoinacommunityistoexplainthebenefitsofecotourism.13IbarraandSuarezfocusmainlyonbusinessskillstraining.14RonMaderadmirestheattitudeofIbarraandSuareztotherural1andownersofMexico.ReadingPassage2High-techRefrigeration1Refrigeratorsaretheepitomeofclunkytechnology:solid,reliableandjustalittlebitdull.Theyhavenotchangedmuchoverthepastcentury,butthentheyhavenotneededto.Theyarebasedonarobustandeffectiveidea--drawheatfromthethingyouwanttocoolbyevaporatingaliquidnexttoit,andthendumpthatheatbypumpingthevapourelsewhereandcondensingit.Thismethodofpumpingheatfromoneplacetoanotherservedmankindwellwhenrefrigerators'mainjobswerepreservingfoodand,asairconditioners,coolingbuildings.Today'shigh-techworld,however,demandshigh-techrefrigeration.Heatpumpsarenolongeruptothejob.Thesearchisonforsomethingtoreplacethem.2Onesetofcandidatesareknownasparaelectricmaterials.Theseactlikebatterieswhentheyundergoatemperaturechange:attachelectrodestothemandtheygenerateacurrent.Thiseffectisusedininfra-redcameras.Anarrayoftinypiecesofparaelectricmaterialcansensetheheatradiatedby,forexample,aperson,andthepatternofthearray'selectricaloutputscanthenbeusedtoconstructanimage.Butuntilrecentlynoonehadbotheredmuchwiththeinverseofthisprocess.Thatinverseexists,however.Applyanappropriatecurrenttoaparaelectricmaterialanditwillcooldown.3SomeonewhoislookingatthisinverseeffectisAlexMischenko,ofCambridgeUniversity.Usingcommerciallyavailableparaelectricfilm,heandhiscolleagueshavegeneratedtemperaturedropsfivetimesbiggerthananypreviouslyrecorded.Thatmaybeenoughtochangethephenomenonfromalaboratorycuriositytosomethingwithcommercialapplications.4Astowhatthoseapplicationsmightbe,DrMischenkoisstillalittlehazy.Hehas,nevertheless,setupacompanytopursuethem.Heforeseesputtinghisdiscoverytouseinmoreefficientdomesticfridgesandairconditioners.Therealmoney,though,maybeincoolingcomputers.5Gadgetscontainingmicroprocessorshavebeengettinghotterforalongtime.OneconsequenceofMoore'sLaw,whichdescribesthedoublingofthenumberoftransistorsonachipevery18months,isthattheamountofheatproduceddoublesaswell.Infact,itmorethandoubles,becausebesidesincreasinginnumber,thecomponentsaregettingfaster.Heatisreleasedeverytimealogicaloperationisperformedinsideamicroprocessor,sothefastertheprocessoris,themoreheatitgenerates.Doublingthefrequencyquadruplestheheatoutput.Andthefrequencyhasdoubledalot.ThefirstPentiumchipssoldbyDrMoore'scompany,Intel,in1993,ranat60mcyclesasecond.ThePentium4--thelast"single-core"desktopprocessor--clockedup3.2billioncyclesasecond.6Disposingofthisheatisabigobstructiontofurtherminiaturisationandhigherspeeds.TheinnardsofadesktopcomputercommonlyhitAttheystopworking.Tweakingtheprocessor'sheatsinks(copperoraluminiumboxesdesignedtoradiateheataway)hasreacheditslimit.Sohastweakingthefansthatcirculateairoverthoseheatsinks.Andtheideaofshiftingfromsingle-coreprocessorstosystemsthatdividedprocessingpowerbetweenfirsttwo,andthenfour,subunits,inordertospreadthethermalload,alsoseemstohavetheendoftheroadinsight.7Onewayoutofthismaybeasecondcuriousphysicalphenomenon,thethermoelectriceffect.Likeparaelectricmaterials,thisgenerateselectricityfromaheatsourceandproducescoolingfromanelectricalsource.Unlikeparaelectrics,asignificantbodyofresearchersisalreadyworkingonit.8Thetricktoagoodthermoelectricmaterialisacrystalstructureinwhichelectronscanflowfreely,butthepathofphonons--heat-carryingvibrationsthatarelargerthanelectrons--isconstantlyinterrupted.Inpractice,thistrickishardtopulloff,andthermoelectricmaterialsarethuslessefficientthanparaelectricones(or,atleast,thanthoseexaminedbyDrMischenko).Nevertheless,RamaVenkatasubramanian,ofNextremeThermalSolutionsinNorthCarolina,claimstohavemadethermoelectricrefrigeratorsthatcansitonthebackofcomputerchipsandcoolhotspotsbyAliShakouri,oftheUniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz,sayshisareevensmaller--sosmallthattheycangoinsidethechip.9Thelastwordincomputercooling,though,maygotoasystemevenlesstechythanaheatpump--aminiatureversionofacarradiator.LastyearApplelaunchedapersonalcomputerthatiscooledbyliquidthatispumpedthroughlittlechannelsintheprocessor,andthencetoaradiator,whereitgivesupitsheattotheatmosphere.Toimproveonthis,IBM'sresearchlaboratoryinZurichisexperimentingwithtinyjetsthatstirtheliquidupandthusmakesureallofiteventuallytouchestheoutsideofthechannel--thepartwheretheheatexchangetakesplace.Inthefuture,therefore,acombinationofmicrochannelsandeitherthermoelectricsorparaelectricsmightcoolcomputers.Theold,asitwere,handinhandwiththenew.(830words)Questions15-19Completeeachofthefollowingstatementswiththescientistorcompanynamefromtheboxbelow.WritetheappropriatelettersA-Finboxes15-19onyouranswersheet.A.AppleB.IBMC.IntelD.AlexMischenkoE.AliShakouriF.RamaVenkatasubramanian15....andhisresearchgroupuseparaelectricfilmavailablefromthemarkettoproducecooling.16....soldmicroprocessorsrunningat60mcyclesasecondin1993.17....saysthathehasmaderefrigeratorswhichcancoolthehotspotsofcomputerchipsby18....claimstohavemadearefrigeratorsmallenoughtobebuiltintoacomputerchip.19....attemptstoproducebettercoolinginpersonalcomputersbystirringupliquidwithtinyjetstomakesuremaximumheatexchange.Questions20-23Dothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninthereadingpassage?Inboxes20-23onyouranswersheetwriteTRUEifthestatementistrueaccordingtothepassageFALSEifthestatementisfalseaccordingtothepassageNOTGIVENiftheinformationisnotgiveninthepassage20.Paraelectricmaterialscangenerateacurrentwhenelectrodesareattachedtothem.21.Dr.Mischenkohassuccessfullyappliedhislaboratorydiscoverytomanufacturingmoreefficientreferigerators.22.Doublingthefrequencyoflogicaloperationsinsideamicroprocessordoublestheheatoutput.23.IBMwillachievebettercomputercoolingbycombiningmicrochannelswithparaelectrics.Questions24-27Completethenotesbelow.ChooseonesuitablewordfromtheReadingPassageaboveforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes24-27onyouranswersheet.Traditionalrefrigeratorsuse...24...pumpstodroptemperature.Atpresent,scientistsaresearchingforothermethodstoproducerefrigeration,especiallyincomputermicroprocessors....25...materialshavebeentriedtogeneratetemperaturedropsfivetimesbiggerthananypreviouslyrecorded....26...effecthasalsobeenadoptedbymanyresearcherstocoolhotspotsincomputers.Aminiatureversionofacar...27...mayalsobeasystemtorealizeidealcomputercoolinginthefuture.Passage3ReadingTheHistoryofEarlyCinemaThehistoryofthecinemainitsfirstthirtyyearsisoneofmajorand,tothisday,unparalleledexpansionandgrowth.Beginningassomethingunusualinahandfulofbigcities-NewYork,London,ParisandBerlin-thenewmediumquicklyfounditswayacrosstheworld,attractinglargerandlargeraudienceswhereveritwasshownandreplacingotherformsofentertainmentasitdidso.Asaudiencesgrew,sodidtheplaceswherefilmswereshown,finishingupwiththe'greatpicturepalaces'ofthe1920s,whichrivalled,andoccasionallysuperseded,theatresandopera-housesintermsofopulenceandsplendour.Meanwhile,filmsthemselvesdevelopedfrombeingshort'attractions'onlyacoupleofminuteslong,tothefull-lengthfeaturethathasdominatedtheworld'sscreensuptothepresentday.AlthoughFrench,German,AmericanandBritishpioneershaveallbeencreditedwiththeinventionofcinema,theBritishandtheGermansplayedarelativelysmallroleinitsworld-wideexploitation.ItwasabovealltheFrench,followedcloselybytheAmericans,whowerethemostpassionateexportersofthenewinvention,helpingtostartcinemainChina，Japan,LatinAmericaandRussia.IntermsofartisticdevelopmentitwasagaintheFrenchandtheAmericanswhotookthelead,thoughintheyearsbeforetheFirstWorldWar,Italy,DenmarkandRussiaalsoplayedapart.Intheend,itwastheUnitedStatesthatwastobecome,andremain,thelargestsinglemarketforfilms.Byprotectingtheirownmarketandpursuingavigorousexportpolicy,theAmericansachievedadominantpositionontheworldmarketbythestartoftheFirstWorldWar.Thecentreoffilm-makinghadmovedwestwards,toHollywood,anditwasfilmsfromthesenewHollywoodstudiosthatfloodedontotheworldsfilmmarketsintheyearsaftertheFirstWorldWar,andhavedonesoeversince.FacedwithtotalHollywooddomination,fewfilmindustriesprovedcompetitive.TheItalianindustry,whichhadpioneeredthefeaturefilmwithspectacularfilmslikeQuovadis?(z913)andCabiria(I9z4),almostcollapsed.InScandinavia,theSwedishcinemahadabriefperiodofglory,notablywithpowerfulepicfilmsandcomedies.EventheFrenchcinemafounditselfinadifficultposition.InEurope,onlyGermanyprovedindustriallycapable,whileinthenewSovietUnionandinJapanthedevelopmentofthecinematookplaceinconditionsofcommercialisolation.Hollywoodtooktheleadartisticallyaswellasindustrially.Hollywoodfilmsappealedbecausetheyhadbetter-constructednarratives,theirspecialeffectsweremoreimpressive,andthestarsystemaddedanewdimensiontoscreenacting.IfHollywooddidnothaveenoughofitsownresources,ithadagreatdealofmoneytobuyupartistsandtechnicalinnovationsfromEuropetoensureitscontinueddominanceoverpresentorfuturecompetition.TherestoftheworldsurvivedpartlybylearningfromHollywoodandpartlybecauseaudiencescontinuedtoexistforaproductwhichcorrespondedtoneedswhichHollywoodcouldnotsupply.Aswellaspopularaudiences,therewerealsoincreasingaudiencesforfilmswhichwereartisticallymoreadventurousorwhichdealtwiththeissuesintheouterworld.Noneofthiswouldhavehappenedwithouttechnology,andcinemaisinfactuniqueasanartform.Intheearlyyears,thisartformwasquiteprimitive,similartotheoriginalFrenchideaofusingalanternandslidesbackintheseventeenthcentury.Earlycinemaprogrammeswereamixtureofitems,combiningcomicsketches,free-standingnarratives,serialepisodesandtheoccasionaltrickoranimatedfilm.Withthearrivalofthefeature-lengthnarrativeasthemainattraction,othertypesoffilmsbecamelessimportant.Themakingofcartoonsbecameaseparatebranchoffilm-making,generallypractisedoutsidethemajorstudios,andthesamewastrueofserials.Togetherwithnewsreels,theytendedtobeshownasshortitemsinaprogrammewhichledtothefeature.Fromearlycinema,itwasonlyAmericanslapstickcomedythatsuccessfullydevelopedinbothshortandfeatureformat.However,duringthis'SilentFilm'era,animation,comedy,serialsanddramaticfeaturescontinuedtothrive,alongwithfactualfilmsordocumentaries,whichacquiredanincreasingdistinctivenessastheperiodprogressed.Itwasalsoatthistimethattheavant-gardefilmfirstachievedcommercialsuccess,thistimethanksalmostexclusivelytotheFrenchandtheoccasionalGermanfilm.Ofthecountrieswhichdevelopedandmaintaineddistinctivenationalcinemasinthesilentperiod,themostimportantwereFrance,GermanyandtheSovietUnion.Ofthese,theFrenchdisplayedthemostcontinuity,inspiteofthewarandpost-wareconomicuncertainties.TheGerm