1.Explaindefinitionoftranslationandtheconceptof“formalcorrespondence”inthemaydefinedasfollows:thereplacementtextualinlanguagetextualmaterialinlanguage(TL).oftermmaterial”thefactthatinitistheofSLtextthatis,TLButorlevelsoflanguagetheremaybenon-equivalentTLmaterial.Moreover,oneormoretherenoatall,buttransferencematerialintotheTLterm”isclearlyakeyproblemisfindingTLtranslationAcentraloftranslationistheandconditionstranslation.AformalcorrespondentisTL(unit,structure,whichmaybesaidoccupy,asas”placeintheofTLastheoccupiesintheSL.Formalcanonlyapproximate,andonlyestablishedultimatelyontheofequivalencepoint.3.Whatyourunderstandingofnatureoftranslation”inlightNida?Accordingtooftranslatingis:Translatinginreproducinginreceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthemessage,intermsofmeaningsecondlyinofstyle.ExplanationoftheNatureoftheTranslation(pp12-14)at”.Todoistoone’sasaThetranslatormustequivalenceratherthanidentity.Inajustwayemphasizingreproductionofthemessageoftheformoftheutterance.Thetranslationnotsoundatranslation.Itshouldstudiouslyavoid”—formalunfaithfulnesstothethemessage.(natural)Aconscientioustranslatorwilltheclosestequivalentofgivenpriority,itiscontentofwhichoftodoelseistoone’sasatranslator.Stylesaidcontent,butitisimportant.shouldnottranslatepoetryitprose,normaterialitnarrative.5.Explain“semantictranslationand“communicativetranslation”proposedbyNewmark.translationcloselytheandsyntacticofallow,themeaningoftheoriginal.CommunicativetranslationproduceitsreadersaneffectasclosepossiblethetheGenerally,abemorecomplex,awkward,moreconcentrated,andpursuesthethought-processesratherthantheofIttomoretheoriginal,onenuancemeaning.Acommunicativetranslationissimpler,clearer,moreconventional,toparticularregisteroftendingundertranslate,tousegeneric,hold-alltermsdifficultAsemantictranslationisoutoftimeandlocaltranslationisephemeralanditsAtoitsformofItrelatesto”functionwheretothevocativeOnedifferencethemethodswherethereisaconflict,communicativeemphasizethe”thanhe1)“狗””off）不要在草坪上行走。paint！””油However,semanticprovidedequivalent-effectissecured,theliteralword-for-wordtranslationisnotonlythebest,itisonlyvalidmethodoftranslation.4.“Formalequivalence”,“dynamicequivalence”,“functionalequivalencearethekeyinofHowdoFormalequivalence

:isthatis,itisrevealmuchaspossibletheformcontentoftheoriginalIndoingF-Ereproduceseveralelements,2.consistencyusage,and3.termsofthereproductionofmayverbsbyverbs,etc.;andsentencesnotsplittingandtheunits);andcpreservingformalofpunctuation,Inreproducingconsistencyinwordusage,antranslationusuallyofterminology;thatis,itaparticularterminthesource-languagebytheterminthereceptorInordertoinoftheanF-Etranslationattemptstomakeadjustmentsidioms,buttomoreliterally,thattoperceivesomethingofwhichdocumentlocalculturalelementstoconveyequivalence

:contrast,translationwhichtodynamicthanformalequivalenceistheprincipleeffect.Intranslationthedirectedreceptor

neofdefiningaD-istoitas“thetosource-language”ofthreeessential1)equivalent,whichpointstowardthemessage,2)whichpointstowardreceptor3)closest,whichtheorientationstogetherofofapproximation.However,aD-Eprimarilyequivalenceofresponsethanform,itimportantdefinemorefullyimplicationsofastotheistoareasoftheforarenderingfitthereceptorlanguageasa2)thecontextoftheparticular3)theaudience.Functionalequivalence:dynamicequivalenceinoffunctionalequivalence.ThehasbeendefinedonthetheoftranslationshouldcomprehendthetranslatedtoextentthatcantheThe”ledbeenunderstoodmerelytermsofwhichandappeal.Accordingly,toavoid”isemployed,thebaseseffectivetranslationtobeinaandorientation,inwhichtheisfunction.afunctionallyequivalentsetofformswhichinfarpossiblewaywillmeaningoftheoriginaltext.Cicero?WhoisWhataretheirviews⑴西塞羅（Cicero106—43B.C.）羅馬演說家，哲學家，修辭學家，作家兼翻譯家。他精通拉丁語和希臘語。他把柏拉圖的《蒂邁歐篇》和荷馬史詩《奧德賽》由希臘語譯成拉丁語，他的著作有《論最優秀的演說家與惡的定義中某些章節涉及翻譯。他對翻譯的看法：

譯者應象演說家那樣，使用符合古羅馬語言習慣來表現內容，以吸引擴大讀者。直譯是缺乏技巧的表現，應該避免逐字死譯，翻譯應該保留詞語最內層的東西——意義。譯者的責任是給讀者稱出原詞的重量而不是數量。通的。

翻譯也是文學創作，任何翻譯必須是其人。聲音與意義自然相聯系，詞與詞義在功能上不可分割，各種語言的修辭手段是相可見，他認為翻譯是能夠找到對等語的，風格也是可譯的。更重要的是他主張活譯。從他開始，就出現了直譯，活譯的討論。⑵弗里德里希·施萊爾馬赫（Schleiermacher1768--1834）德國人。于年發表一論文《論翻譯的方法他說：翻譯分筆譯和口譯。口譯指關于商業的翻譯，筆譯是關于文學、藝術、科學的翻譯方第一個明確區分筆譯和口譯的人）翻譯分真正的翻譯和機械的翻譯，真正的翻譯是指文學、藝術、科學的翻譯。翻譯必須正確理解語言和思維的辨證關系，一方面每個人都受到所說語言的制約，任何在語言范圍之外的東西說話人都不可能明確想到。思想概念的形成，這些概念相互聯結的方式和程度都是說話人從小開始習得語言所安排的，說話人的智能