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1、英文文獻(xiàn)翻譯全球定位系統(tǒng)(GPS)唐納德波斯特和威廉卡瑟迪,延伸農(nóng)業(yè)工程師肯特香, 密蘇里-哥倫比亞大學(xué)精細(xì)農(nóng)業(yè)中心副主席。測距決定因素每個(gè)衛(wèi)星在不同的波段頻率上(頻率波段是1000到2000MHZ)不斷廣播兩種無線電信號(hào)。L1波段(傳輸信號(hào)為1575.42兆赫)運(yùn)載兩種碼,一個(gè)粗/捕獲(C/A)碼和一個(gè)精(P)碼。L2波段(傳輸頻率為1227.60兆赫)只運(yùn)載P碼,這是個(gè)加密碼,只有軍隊(duì)和其他“授權(quán)”用戶可以解譯它。同時(shí)使用L1和L2上的P碼進(jìn)行定位,稱為精密定位服務(wù)(PPS),供美國和盟國的軍隊(duì)、美國政府機(jī)構(gòu)和民用授權(quán)用戶使用。供全民使用的測距碼只有L1波段上的C/A碼,稱為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)定位服務(wù)(
2、SPS)。全球定位技術(shù)GPS接收機(jī)提供一種方法可以確定地球上任何地方的位置,接收機(jī)自動(dòng)跟蹤系統(tǒng)允許農(nóng)民和農(nóng)業(yè)服務(wù)供應(yīng)商自動(dòng)記錄數(shù)據(jù)和在更大的地域里面將輸入變量應(yīng)用到更小的區(qū)域。一個(gè)GPS接收機(jī)可以與一個(gè)簡單的調(diào)頻或者調(diào)幅收音機(jī)相比較。它接受來自美國國防部(DOD)全球定位系統(tǒng)所播發(fā)的信號(hào)。GPS系統(tǒng)中的衛(wèi)星圍繞地球旋轉(zhuǎn),衛(wèi)星高度為12550英里,位置可以預(yù)測。因此我們把這些衛(wèi)星群稱為衛(wèi)星星座。每個(gè)衛(wèi)星都會(huì)播發(fā)包含衛(wèi)星星座內(nèi)所有衛(wèi)星的星歷信息。GPS接收機(jī)通過這些星歷信息就能測定這些衛(wèi)星的位置。由于來自太陽和月亮的引力的影響,衛(wèi)星運(yùn)行的軌道會(huì)發(fā)生微小的變化。美國國防部必須時(shí)時(shí)監(jiān)控衛(wèi)星系統(tǒng)并不斷調(diào)
3、整星歷信息,以確定衛(wèi)星的真實(shí)軌道。播發(fā)的信號(hào)中也包含一個(gè)精密側(cè)時(shí)的碼元,GPS接收機(jī)可以通過此碼元測定信號(hào)到達(dá)接收機(jī)的時(shí)間。GPS接收機(jī)內(nèi)置的微處理器可通過時(shí)延和衛(wèi)星的位置計(jì)算出自身到每個(gè)可見衛(wèi)星的距離,然后運(yùn)用這些信息通過三角測量的方法測定距離。精度三角測量是一種用于確定地球上一點(diǎn)的三維空間信息的數(shù)學(xué)方法。如果已知道到三個(gè)衛(wèi)星的的距離和自身的大概位置,GPS接收機(jī)就可以計(jì)算出它的平面位置,如果可以獲得4顆衛(wèi)星的相關(guān)信息,其高程也可測定。測量所獲得的精度一般取決于以下五種因素:1) 合理的安置2) GPS接收機(jī)所采用的技術(shù)級(jí)別3) 可觀測衛(wèi)星的數(shù)量和位置4) SA(選擇可用性)政策所產(chǎn)生的誤差
4、,大氣條件,對(duì)流層延遲,以及多路徑效應(yīng)一一信號(hào)在所測區(qū)域物體表面的發(fā)射。5) 差分改正安置GPS天線應(yīng)安置在拖拉機(jī)或者卡車的組合位置中心,并且要高于機(jī)械任何一個(gè)阻礙天線觀測衛(wèi)星位置的上面。如果操縱儀已經(jīng)對(duì)中,并且其頂部高于機(jī)械的其他部分,儀器安置在頂部是最好的選擇。然而,在一個(gè)陡峭的斜坡上,高位置的安置將因水平位置的偏移而導(dǎo)致位置計(jì)算出現(xiàn)錯(cuò)誤。GPS接收機(jī)和DGPS接收機(jī)天線類型不一樣,但是配置一個(gè)組合天線以便他們?cè)谕粋€(gè)位置對(duì)中。在農(nóng)業(yè)應(yīng)用中,比如說產(chǎn)量監(jiān)測噴霧和施肥等,常常會(huì)發(fā)生幾秒鐘的延遲。例如:如果一個(gè)噴霧裝置運(yùn)動(dòng)速度為10英里/每秒,其上的天線安置在噴桿前30英尺,控制器的頻率變化將
5、在兩秒鐘后發(fā)生,那么當(dāng)噴桿到達(dá)天線位置,也就是變化開始的地方時(shí),頻率變化將會(huì)發(fā)生,而在同一位置,以地面上的任何速度運(yùn)動(dòng),作為控制器其頻率變化都不會(huì)發(fā)生,時(shí)間調(diào)整必須高效地計(jì)入系統(tǒng)以補(bǔ)償反饋和生產(chǎn)方面應(yīng)用的時(shí)間延遲。電子風(fēng)暴、電源線、雙向無線電波、收音機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)換器、電機(jī)、微波塔、對(duì)講機(jī)、車載電器如交流發(fā)電機(jī)、火花點(diǎn)火引擎中的點(diǎn)火系統(tǒng)以及其他干擾源都會(huì)引起電子干擾。改變天線的位置或者增加噪聲抑制可以減少來自點(diǎn)火系統(tǒng)和交流發(fā)電機(jī)的干擾,按照說明安置GPS裝置,以確保裝置間的緊密連接。技術(shù)廉價(jià)的接收機(jī)一次只能從一個(gè)衛(wèi)星接收信號(hào)。而且相比于能同時(shí)接收4種信號(hào)的接收機(jī),它需要更多的時(shí)間來測定位置。通常來講,在
6、任何一個(gè)歷元下,可同時(shí)見到7到10顆衛(wèi)星,再加上配置精良的接收機(jī)將會(huì)得到最準(zhǔn)確的定位。衛(wèi)星星座重捕獲時(shí)間是指在一個(gè)短期衛(wèi)星失鎖后重新獲得固定解所花費(fèi)的時(shí)間,發(fā)生此現(xiàn)象的原因有很多,如周圍存在大樹及建筑群、衛(wèi)星處于可視范圍之外等等。重捕獲時(shí)間對(duì)于大多數(shù)農(nóng)業(yè)應(yīng)用中都是十分重要的,特別是在飛機(jī)汽車的導(dǎo)航應(yīng)用中,新的GPS接收機(jī)技術(shù)已經(jīng)縮短了重捕獲時(shí)間,他們可同時(shí)跟蹤8-12顆衛(wèi)星的接收機(jī),所以更不易失鎖。使用三角測量的方法計(jì)算位置、距離的微小誤差就能引起定位的較大誤差。當(dāng)衛(wèi)星排列比較緊密時(shí),通過三角測量計(jì)算位置的誤差將會(huì)增大,當(dāng)接收機(jī)可以接收到分布面較為廣闊的衛(wèi)星的信號(hào)時(shí)就可以獲得很高的精度。選擇可
7、用性以及其他誤差(圖一)為防止敵方使用GPS衛(wèi)星信號(hào)定位,美國國防部有效的干擾衛(wèi)星信號(hào),使得定位精度下降到100米。我們把這種干擾稱為“選擇可用性”(SA).然而,對(duì)流層大氣層及電離層的條件也會(huì)導(dǎo)致距離計(jì)算中的扭曲和誤差。由于這些環(huán)境條件引起的誤差是不易也是不可靠預(yù)測到得,因此,即使沒有SA政策,高精度的定位中仍需要差分定位。多路徑效應(yīng):這種現(xiàn)象能產(chǎn)生信號(hào)干擾,這是由于信號(hào)在到達(dá)天線之前被周圍物體反射引起(圖2)。多路徑效應(yīng)不能由差分改正消除。.差分改正基準(zhǔn)站GPS接收機(jī)用于計(jì)算由于SA政策、大氣條件變化及其因素引起的總誤差。其概念是簡明的,一個(gè)基準(zhǔn)值接收機(jī)總是有一個(gè)位置已知的點(diǎn)位,由于衛(wèi)星和
8、接收機(jī)的位置是已知的,所以實(shí)際的距離就是已知的。GPS接收機(jī)通過廣播信號(hào)計(jì)算出的距離成為偽距。通常情況下由于很多誤差源的存在,偽距(距離觀測值)是帶有誤差的偽距與真實(shí)距離之間的差值就是距離測量誤差。有時(shí)候,差分改正數(shù)據(jù)可以滯后獲得和使用這種過程稱為后處理差分改正。不過,最常見的渠道是連接一個(gè)差分接收機(jī)和GPS接收機(jī)以提供實(shí)時(shí)差分改正(圖4)。許多組合接收機(jī)包含GPS接收機(jī)和差分改正接收機(jī),這些接收機(jī)組合,稱為差分改正GPS(DGPS)接收機(jī)。差分改正信號(hào)可以從海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)和軍隊(duì)機(jī)構(gòu)獲取,并且通過付費(fèi)的商業(yè)渠道得到的來自衛(wèi)星或者地基塔的信號(hào)。如果這些信號(hào)源不可獲得或者用于特殊的任務(wù),可以安置一個(gè)專
9、用的差分改正源提供相關(guān)信息。一些新式的DGPS接收機(jī)具有同時(shí)接收來自海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)和衛(wèi)星服務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)的差分信號(hào)。參照表1比較海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)和衛(wèi)星差分改正來源的特點(diǎn)。海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)。海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)信號(hào)的廣播頻率范圍是285-325KHZ.(正好低于常見的調(diào)幅廣播信號(hào)頻率),在這個(gè)頻率帶內(nèi)無線電波像地面電波一樣傳播,并且不會(huì)限制于像調(diào)頻廣播站那樣只接收“可視”信號(hào)。這種信號(hào)時(shí)類似于GPS 衛(wèi)星信號(hào)的一系列脈沖,它比調(diào)幅無線電信號(hào)抵抗電子干擾和電子噪聲的能力強(qiáng)。密蘇里可以免費(fèi)從海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)信號(hào)塔獲取差分改正信號(hào),這些信號(hào)塔鄰近圣路易斯(322 KHz),堪薩斯市( 305 KHz),塔爾薩( 299KHz),巖島( 31
10、1 KHz),孟菲斯( 310KHz)和奧馬哈(298 KHz)。海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)信號(hào)塔在天氣狀況好的情況下控制范圍大概為150英里,測量精度隨距離的增加而降低,十分希望這種服務(wù)能成為許多農(nóng)業(yè)用戶的選擇,特別是在密蘇里,在這里就可以獲得不同類別的信號(hào)。海岸警衛(wèi)差分信號(hào)的一個(gè)缺點(diǎn)是它的信號(hào)塔發(fā)送或者重復(fù)的頻率低,大部分的海岸警衛(wèi)站一秒鐘的播發(fā)頻率為200比特。按這種播發(fā)速率,衛(wèi)星差分改正的數(shù)據(jù)重復(fù)周期為4秒,對(duì)于一些應(yīng)用,像導(dǎo)航類應(yīng)用,如果以這種更新速率是不能被接受的,對(duì)于導(dǎo)航應(yīng)用,每秒中需要更新2到10次。星基差分改正信號(hào)典型的海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)信號(hào)接收機(jī)有兩個(gè)通道,一個(gè)通道接收差分改正信息,另一個(gè)搜尋做好
11、的的輸入信號(hào)。如果兩個(gè)信號(hào)塔在測量范圍內(nèi),這將有助于確保DGPS信號(hào)的丟失。 對(duì)于用戶來說,最簡單形式的差分信號(hào)來自于一個(gè)測量基準(zhǔn)衛(wèi)星像Omni star Accqpoint 和 Racal 公司都提供這種服務(wù)。一般用戶的年使用費(fèi)用為500到800美元,這種改正信號(hào)從美國各個(gè)地方都可獲得高精度高質(zhì)量的接收機(jī)的測量精度。其精度達(dá)到了1-3米(標(biāo)準(zhǔn)差),這可以參考第五頁表格中的所列精度。星基信號(hào)也許有利于在樹木建筑物周圍作業(yè),這是由于衛(wèi)星幾乎高于所有其他地面點(diǎn),并且在DGPS接收機(jī)的可視范圍內(nèi)。 地基差分改正信號(hào)一些可獲得的商業(yè)地基改正信號(hào)服務(wù)也是需要付費(fèi)的,一些公司裝配他們自己的發(fā)射裝置來播發(fā)改
12、正信號(hào)。這些公司有SatLoc, Mobile Data and CSI.私有GPS接收機(jī)和無線電發(fā)射器一些服務(wù)商吧改正信息加載到調(diào)頻廣播站的發(fā)射器上。這些次級(jí)傳載者有精確位置交流器,數(shù)字版權(quán)唯一標(biāo)識(shí)器等等。 對(duì)于不在海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)或者商業(yè)差分改正信號(hào)覆蓋范圍內(nèi)的GPS使用者來說,他們可以安置一個(gè)基準(zhǔn)站接收機(jī)和發(fā)射器來提供自己的差分改正資源,自從西部地區(qū)擁有其他可供選折后,密蘇里很少有用戶選擇購買和安置他們自己的固定GPS接收機(jī)和發(fā)射器。成本VS準(zhǔn)確度GPS測量所達(dá)到的精度部分取決于你想花費(fèi)的多少,費(fèi)用大致為100美元到100000美元。一個(gè)低成本(從100美元到500美元)的不具有DGPS功能的
13、GPS接收機(jī),足夠應(yīng)用于一些作物偵查、公路導(dǎo)航或者定位湖泊上你喜歡的釣魚點(diǎn),其定位精度為50碼。對(duì)于花費(fèi)在3000美元到5000美元的DGPS接收機(jī)適用于大部分的農(nóng)業(yè)應(yīng)用,其測量精度至少為3米(均方差),一般情況下為1米(均方差),這種精度足夠滿足監(jiān)測和網(wǎng)格土壤取樣的需要。如果你需要一個(gè)GPS接收機(jī)導(dǎo)航(噴灑農(nóng)藥、施肥等)成本可能達(dá)到25000美元,這樣的系統(tǒng)提供的精度達(dá)到幾英寸。由于噴灑農(nóng)藥和施肥器運(yùn)動(dòng)速度可能很快,低質(zhì)量的GPS設(shè)備位置更新的速度不足以適應(yīng)導(dǎo)航和控制管理。而現(xiàn)在高更新率、英寸級(jí)別甚至更小的高精度GPS系統(tǒng)的價(jià)格變得越來越低。一些差分改正服務(wù)的年定費(fèi)用隨著服務(wù)水平的不同而不同
14、。有些供應(yīng)商提供三個(gè)層次的服務(wù)。例如:最高層次可以提供精度優(yōu)于1米的優(yōu)質(zhì)服務(wù);中間層次可以提供精度為5米的服務(wù);基本服務(wù)提供的精度在10米范圍內(nèi)。根據(jù)所提供服務(wù)的層次,一般對(duì)應(yīng)的年費(fèi)用大致為600美元、250美元、75美元。坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)某些坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)用于繪制地圖,它們也可能造成不同軟件系統(tǒng)之間的兼容性問題。用戶常常需要把點(diǎn)的位置數(shù)據(jù)轉(zhuǎn)換到一個(gè)平面(平面)坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)中或者與另一套數(shù)據(jù)融合來繪制GPS 成果地圖或者進(jìn)一步的運(yùn)算以獲得該地區(qū)的相關(guān)參數(shù)、距離和方向。(平面坐標(biāo)系的計(jì)算工作常常比大地坐標(biāo)容易)。當(dāng)使用來自不同渠道的數(shù)據(jù)和地圖時(shí),坐標(biāo)必須基于同一基準(zhǔn)。由于使用不同的參考框架,使得坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)之間存在差
15、異。橢球參數(shù)和數(shù)據(jù)的調(diào)整是重要的(有時(shí)可達(dá)幾百米)并且不容忽視。 由知名商-地理信息系統(tǒng)經(jīng)銷商編制的一些可用的商業(yè)軟件程序沒有正確的對(duì)待坐標(biāo)系之間的轉(zhuǎn)換。國家大地測量機(jī)構(gòu)以標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的價(jià)格提供軟件服務(wù),用于計(jì)算基準(zhǔn)轉(zhuǎn)換。在數(shù)字化成圖之前,需要把舊版本的地面上的邊界坐標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)換成預(yù)設(shè)的基準(zhǔn)坐標(biāo)(大可能是WGS-84坐標(biāo))。GPS接收機(jī)常常可以以不同的格式傳輸位置信息。最常見的格式為 經(jīng)/偉(經(jīng)度/緯度)。經(jīng)/偉坐標(biāo)的記錄單位形式為度、分、秒。每秒緯度對(duì)應(yīng)的距離長為30米。GPS接收機(jī)可以以度和精確到小數(shù)點(diǎn)后四位的形式顯示經(jīng)緯度(取代分、秒的形式)。大部分的地理信息系統(tǒng)軟件可以處理不同格式的數(shù)據(jù)。并可以自動(dòng)
16、的把經(jīng)/偉坐標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)換成UTM(通用橫軸墨卡托投影或者SPC(國家UTM(通用橫軸墨卡托投影和SPC(國家平面坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng))系統(tǒng)將地球表面部分曲面投影到一個(gè)平面地圖上,并以米和英尺級(jí)的精度得出某位置基于參考點(diǎn)真實(shí)距離。因此坐標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)換沒有必要計(jì)算和面積。來自于一些GPS供應(yīng)商的商業(yè)型軟件可以通過GPS數(shù)據(jù)計(jì)算得到相應(yīng)的UTM(通用橫軸墨卡托投影和SPC(國家平面坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng))坐標(biāo)。這些坐標(biāo)通常是基于WGS一84基準(zhǔn)。屬于NAD一83體系。如果這些數(shù)據(jù)必須轉(zhuǎn)換成NAD-27體系。我們最好先作NAD-83體系NAD-27體系之間的大地坐標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)換,然后再轉(zhuǎn)換成相應(yīng)的平面坐標(biāo)。通用橫軸墨卡托投影通用橫軸墨卡托投影坐標(biāo)系
17、統(tǒng)是一個(gè)世界坐標(biāo)系。1947年,最初由美國軍隊(duì)采用,而后在許多國家廣泛用于民用測圖。UTM坐標(biāo)系是一個(gè)全世界連續(xù)的的系統(tǒng),世界被分成了60個(gè)相應(yīng)區(qū)域,每個(gè)區(qū)域帶橫跨6個(gè)經(jīng)度、南北緯延伸到84度。總結(jié)在二十世紀(jì)三十年代,美國海岸和大地測量局為其國土內(nèi)的48個(gè)州建立了一個(gè)平面坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)。設(shè)立在每個(gè)州的一到五投影帶使用蘭勃脫正形投影和橫軸墨卡托投影。為適應(yīng)美國各州的測量工作和保持區(qū)域的扭曲變形小于千分之一,選擇具體的投影和投影帶的大小。總的來說,全球定位系統(tǒng)和GPS接收機(jī)為測定地球上的任意位置提供方法。這個(gè)系統(tǒng)由美國國防部開發(fā)并且可應(yīng)用于多種目的。GPS 已經(jīng)使精細(xì)農(nóng)業(yè)稱為了現(xiàn)實(shí)。一個(gè)典型的應(yīng)用于農(nóng)業(yè)
18、的配置設(shè)施包括一個(gè)GPS接收機(jī)和相應(yīng)的天線,一個(gè)差分改正接收機(jī)和相應(yīng)的天線,還有相應(yīng)的電纜接口,通過此接口可以把來自于接收機(jī)差分改正GPS數(shù)據(jù)傳輸?shù)狡渌南褶r(nóng)作物監(jiān)測或者可變頻率控制器的儀器中。如果我們安置和操縱正確,GPS可以提供精確的位置數(shù)據(jù),但在惡劣條件下會(huì)產(chǎn)生錯(cuò)誤的讀數(shù)。使用類似的統(tǒng)計(jì)措施,比較各種接收機(jī)的性能特點(diǎn)。如果有的話,也會(huì)有很少的接收機(jī)提供在估計(jì)時(shí)間百分百下提供下提供精確的位置。即使沒有像選擇可用性政策那樣的干擾信號(hào)的措施存在,差分改正接收機(jī)是有必要描述其他的誤差源來提供精準(zhǔn)信息,以滿足精細(xì)農(nóng)業(yè)的需要。全球定位系統(tǒng)的精度單位全球定位系統(tǒng)的精度單位的表示形式有許多種,使用起來并
19、不統(tǒng)一和具體。大多數(shù)GPS精度統(tǒng)計(jì)定義都假定測定位置誤差是隨機(jī)的而且服從正太分布。一種描述精度大小的數(shù)學(xué)方法是誤差橢圓。這個(gè)術(shù)語用于描述平面位置誤差的大小。一米大小的誤差橢圓意味著位置精度估計(jì)百分之五十的在一米的范圍內(nèi)。百分之五十在其他一米以外的任何位置。兩個(gè)常用的描述精度的術(shù)語是均方差(有時(shí)也稱作西格瑪和方差(西格瑪?shù)钠椒剑>讲畲碇礁笾碌扔跇?biāo)準(zhǔn)差。如果計(jì)算的位置對(duì)于真正的位置來說服從標(biāo)準(zhǔn)正態(tài)分布,那么百分之68的位置是在一個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)偏差的范圍之內(nèi),百分之95將在兩個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)差的范圍之內(nèi)。當(dāng)比較GPS精度單位大小的時(shí)候要注意單位的具體與統(tǒng)一。(可以同時(shí)是均方差,可以是標(biāo)準(zhǔn)差,也可以是方差
20、)。安置在任何位置接收機(jī)的固定能力-在沒有給出大致位置和時(shí)間的情況下,接收機(jī)所具有的開始定位的能力。術(shù)語匯總帶寬-信號(hào)的頻率范圍。偽碼-標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的(粗捕獲嗎)GPS碼。一個(gè)二進(jìn)制偽隨機(jī)代碼,碼元長度為1023比特,雙相調(diào)制,載波頻率為1.023兆赫茲。有時(shí)候也稱為“民用代碼”。載波信號(hào)-通過調(diào)制可以從一個(gè)基本頻率變?yōu)槠渌l率的信號(hào)。載波頻率-從一個(gè)無線電發(fā)射裝置輸出的未被調(diào)制的信號(hào)的頻率。載波相位定位-全球定位系統(tǒng)基于L1 或者L2載波信號(hào)測距。通道一單通道的GPS接收機(jī),它里面的集成電路系統(tǒng)可以接收到單個(gè)GPS衛(wèi)星的信號(hào)。時(shí)鐘偏差-鐘面讀數(shù)與正確的GPS時(shí)之間的差異。全球定位系統(tǒng)碼相位-GPS基
21、于加載到載波上的測距碼(粗碼和精測碼)的測量。控制部分-一個(gè)全球的全球定位系統(tǒng)的監(jiān)測和控制站,用于提供衛(wèi)星的精確位置和精確的時(shí)間。差分定位-兩個(gè)接收機(jī)同時(shí)跟蹤同一個(gè)GPS衛(wèi)星,接收其相應(yīng)的信號(hào),用以確定兩個(gè)接收機(jī)之間的精確的相對(duì)位置。測量精度因子-可以反映綜合誤差的一個(gè)參數(shù)。它的大小只取決于用戶和他們所觀測衛(wèi)星的幾何位置關(guān)系。一般用精度因子和幾何精度因子表示。抖動(dòng)-數(shù)字噪聲。美國國防部使用此方法把其加入GPS信號(hào)中,并由此產(chǎn)生了選擇可用性。星歷-發(fā)送給用戶的衛(wèi)星的當(dāng)前所預(yù)測的位置數(shù)據(jù)信息幾何精度因子-可見精度因子。電離層-距離地球表面上空80到120英里的一個(gè)層帶。電離層折射-當(dāng)信號(hào)穿越電離層
22、的時(shí)候,傳播信號(hào)速度的變化。L波段-無線電波頻率帶,從1000兆赫茲到2000兆赫茲。GPS載波頻率(1227.6 MHz and 1575.42 MHz)位于L波段。一公制長度單位,長為3.28英尺。多路徑效應(yīng)-由于信號(hào)經(jīng)不同路徑達(dá)到接收機(jī)所造成的信號(hào)之間的干擾。通常是因?yàn)樾盘?hào)被反射或者彈射。多通道接收機(jī)一可以同時(shí)跟蹤和記錄多于一個(gè)衛(wèi)星信號(hào)的GPS接收機(jī)。多路徑復(fù)用通道-可以通過若干衛(wèi)星信號(hào)序列編碼的GPS接收機(jī)信號(hào)通道。P碼-精測碼。一個(gè)很長的偽隨機(jī)序列二進(jìn)制代碼,加載到一個(gè)頻率為10.23 MHz(基準(zhǔn)頻率)載波上,播發(fā)周期為267天。對(duì)于每個(gè)GPS衛(wèi)星而言每個(gè)星期的播發(fā)的代碼都是唯一的
23、,并且一星期重置一次。精密定位服務(wù)(SPS)-基于雙頻P碼,無選擇可用性政策的影響,使用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的全球定位系統(tǒng),是最精確的動(dòng)態(tài)定位方法。偽隨機(jī)代碼一帶有偽隨機(jī)噪聲的信號(hào)。其結(jié)構(gòu)十分復(fù)雜但是卻是0或1的重復(fù)及其組合。偽距-基于相應(yīng)的GPS衛(wèi)星傳輸代碼和當(dāng)?shù)亟邮諜C(jī)的參考代碼,來自衛(wèi)星鐘差和接收機(jī)鐘差所造成的測距誤差未得到糾正。衛(wèi)星星座-空間分布的GPS衛(wèi)星。選擇可用性(SA)-美國國防部采取的在GPS信號(hào)中引入時(shí)鐘噪聲,進(jìn)而降低測量用戶的測定精度。靜態(tài)定位-GPS接收機(jī)天線固定在地球的某個(gè)位置,測量過程中不發(fā)生運(yùn)動(dòng)的位置測量工作。精密定位服務(wù)(SPS)-通過使用單頻的粗測碼獲得標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的定位精度。Glob
24、al Positioning System (GPS)Donald Pfost and William Casady, Extension Agricultural Engineers Kent Shannon, Associate Director of the Missouri Precision Agriculture Center University of Missouri-Columbia Range determination factorsEach GPS satellite continuously broadcasts two radio signals on separa
25、te L-band frequencies (the L-band is from 1,000 to 2,000 MHz). The L1 signal (transmitted at 1575.42 MHz) carries two codes, a Coarse/Acquisition (C/A) code and a Precision (P) code. The L2 signal (transmitted at 1227.60 MHz) carries only the P code, which is encrypted so only the military and other
26、 “authorized” receivers can interpret it. The use of both the L1 and L2 signals and their P codes produces what is called the Precise Positioning Service (PPS) and is available to the U.S. and allied military, U.S. government agencies and authorized civilian users. The system available for all civil
27、ian use accesses only the L1signal and the C/A code and is known as the Standard Positioning Service.GPS technologyGlobal Positioning System (GPS) receivers provide a method for determining location anywhere on the earth. Accurate, automated position tracking with GPS receivers allows farmers and ag
28、ricultural service providers to automatically record data and apply variable rates of inputs to smaller areas within larger fieldsA GPS receiver can be compared with a simple AM or FM radio. A GPS receiver “l(fā)istens” for the signals that are broadcast from the satellites of the United States Departme
29、nt of Defense (DOD) Global Positioning System. Orbiting around the earth at an altitude of 12,550 miles, these satellites are in predictable locations; hence, we refer to the system of satellites as the GPS constellation. Each satellite broadcasts almanac information containing the position of all s
30、atellites in the constellation. GPS receivers use the almanac to determine the position of the satellites. Minor variations in the orbits of the satellites occur due to gravitational forces from the sun and the moon. The DOD continuously monitors the satellites and adjusts the almanac information to
31、 represent the actual orbits of the satellites.The broadcast signals also contain a precisely timed predictable code that a GPS receiver can use to deter-mine how long the signal required to reach the receiver. A microprocessor within a GPS receiver uses these delays and the position of the satellit
32、e to calculate the distance to each satellite, and then uses this information to determine location through triangulation.Triangulation is a mathematical method for locating points on a plane in three-dimensional space. If the distances to each of three satellites and your approximate location on th
33、e earth are known, the GPS receiver can calculate its terrestrial position. If information from four satellites is available, elevation can also be determined. AccuracyThe accuracy obtained generally depends on five factors1) proper installation2) the degree of technology used in the receiver3) the
34、number and location of satellites4) errors introduced by selective availability(SA), atmospheric conditions, the troposphere, the ionosphere, and multipathing 一 radio signals bouncing off objects in the area 5) differential corrections.InstallationGPS antennas should be mounted on the centerline of
35、a combine, tractor or truck and above any part of the machinery that might obstruct a line of sight to a satellite. If the cab is centered and the top of the cab is above other portions of the machine, a cab-top mounting maybe the best location. However, on a steep side slope, a high mounting point
36、will result in an error in position calculation due to the offset in horizontal position. GPS and DGPS receivers may have separate antennas but usually there will be a combination antenna so that both are centered at the same location. A delay of several seconds often occurs in agricultural applicat
37、ions such as yield monitoring, spraying and fertilizer application.Example: If the antenna on a sprayer traveling 10 mph is mounted 30 ft ahead of the booms and a rate change at the controller is effected at the boom two seconds later, the rate change will occur when the booms reach the location of
38、the antenna where the change was made. At any other ground speed, the rate change at the booms will not occur at the same location as the controller. A time adjustment mustusually be factored into the system to compensate for time delays in sensing or product application. Electrical interference can
39、 result from electrical storms, power lines, 2-way radios, nearby radio transmitters, electric motors, microwave towers, cellular phones, vehicular electrical equipment such as alternators and ignition systems on spark-ignition engines and other sources. Changing the position of the antenna or addin
40、g noise suppression kits may reduce interference problems from alternators and ignition systems. Follow the instructions for installation of the GPS equipment, making sure that all connections are tight. Technology Low-cost receivers receive signals from one satellite at a time and require more time
41、 to determine the location than a receiver capable of receiving four signals simultaneously. Usually, seven to 10 satellites are in view at any one time and more sophisticated receivers will produce the most accurate location.Reacquisition time is the time it takes to get an accurate position fix af
42、ter a short-time loss of satellite signals; this may occur for a variety of reasons, including traveling near trees or buildings and losing the line of sight to satellites. Reacquisition time is important for most agricultural applications and especially for guidance with applicators and aircraft. N
43、ew technology in GPS receivers has shortened reacquisition time. Receivers that can track 8-12 satellites are less susceptible to acquisition loss. Satellite constellationsUsing triangulation to calculate position, small errors in distance can cause large errors in position. The error in calculating
44、 position through triangulation increases when the satellites are close together. The best accuracy is produced when the receiver can pick up signals from many widely dispersed satellites (Figure 1).Selective availability and other errorsSelective availability and other errorsTo prevent an enemy fro
45、m using GPS satellite signals for determining locations on earth, the DOD“scrambles” the signals sufficiently to introduce an error of about 100 meters in an uncorrected location calculation. The term for this is “selective availability” (SA). Atmospheric, tropospheric and ionospheric conditions, ho
46、wever, also cause distortions or errors in calculating distance; natural errors due to these conditions are not easily or reliably predicted. Hence, even in the absence of SA, differential corrections will still be required to accurately calculate position.Multipathing, the phenomenon that creates d
47、istorted television signals is caused by signals that bounce off of other objects before reaching the antenna (Figure 2). Multipathing cannot be corrected by differential correctionsDifferential correctionsStationary GPS receivers are used to calculate the total error due to SA, variable atmospheric
48、 conditions and other factors. The concept is simple. A stationary receiver always has a known location; because the actual positions of the satellite and the receiver are known the true range (distance) is known. The distance calculated by the receiver using the broadcast signals is known as the ps
49、eudorange, which is generally in error due to the combined sources of all errors. The difference between the true range and the pseudorange is the error and is known as the differential correction (Figure 3).Differential correction data can be purchased and used at a later time in a process known as
50、 post processing to correct the errors in recorded data. However, the most common approach is to connect a differential corrections receiver to a GPS receiver to provide real-time corrections (Figure 4).Many units incorporate GPS receivers and differential corrections receivers into the same unit. T
51、hese are often referred to as differentially-corrected GPS (DGPS) receivers. Differential corrections signals are single path from satellite to receiver Satellite-based correction signals available from the Coast Guard or Army Corps of Engineers and through commercial sources, which, for a fee, will
52、 provide signals from a satellite or a land-based tower. Where these sources arent available or for special applications, a private differential corrections source can be installed.Some of the newer DGPS receivers combine the capability of receiving differential signals from both the Coast Guard bea
53、cons and from a satellite service. Refer to Table 1 for a comparison of features of Coast Guard and satellite-based differential corrections sources.Coast Guard signalsThe Coast Guard signals are broadcast in the frequency range of 285-325 kHz (just below the usual AM-radio band) where radio waves t
54、ravel as ground waves and are not limited to line-of-sight reception like FM-radio stations.The signals are series of pulses similar to those GPS satellites. Referred to as Minimum Shift Keying modulation, the signal is less sensitive to electrical interference and noise than AM-radios.Missouri has
55、free access to correction signals from Coast Guard beacons located near St. Louis (322 KHz), Kansas City ( 305 KHz), Tulsa ( 299KHz), Rock Island ( 311 KHz), Memphis ( 310KHz) and Omaha (298 KHz).The range of the Coast Guard beacons is approximately 150 miles in good weather (electrical storms cause
56、 interference). Accuracy decreases with distance from the transmitter. This service is expected to become the choice of many agricultural users, especially in Missouri where several signals are available.A disadvantage of the Coast Guard differential corrections signal is the rate at which the beaco
57、n transmits or repeats messages. Most Coast Guard sites broadcast at 200 bits per second. At this broad-cast rate, the age of a satellites differential correction can be as old as four seconds. For some applications, such as guidance, this update rate may be unacceptable. For guidance applications,
58、update rates of two to ten times per second may be required. Typical Coast Guard beacon receivers have two channels. One channel receives the differential correction and the other is searching for the best incoming signal. This helps to ensure against loss of a DGPS signal if at least two beacons are within range.Satellite-based correction signalsFor the user, one of the simplest types of differential corrections signals is transmitted from a geostationary satellite. Companies su
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